are the narratives of exploration among the Hunt, C. T. Jackson, D. D. Owen, J. D. WhitRocky mountains and in Oregon and California ney, A. Winchell, F. V. Hayden, J. P. Lesby J. C. Fremont; the reports of expeditions ley, C. F. Hartt, Clarence King, J. W. Foster, to the Red river of Louisiana, by Capt. R. B. W. C. Redfield, C. H. Hitchcock, J. S. Newberry, Marcy; to Texas and New Mexico, by J. R. Bart- James Hall, Joseph Leidy, H. C. Lea, W. W. lett; to Utah, by Capt. Howard Stansbury; to Mather, O. C. Marsh, and C. D. Cope, of whom Arizona and the Gila river, by Lieut. Col. W. H. the last seven are also distinguished as palæonEmory; to the southern hemisphere, by Lieut. tologists; and on mineralogy, Prof. J. D. Dana, J. M. Gilliss; to Japan, by Commodore M. C. author of several works on both geology and Perry; to the Rio de la Plata, by Lieut. T. S. mineralogy, J. Ross Browne, P. Cleaveland, L. Page; to the Amazon, by Lieuts. W. L. Hern- C. Beck, and C. U. Shepard. The writers on don and L. Gibbon; to the Dead sea, by Lieut. chemistry include Benjamin Silliman and BenW. F. Lynch; and the reports of the various jamin Silliman, jr., Robert Hare, C. T. Jackexpeditions for the survey of railroad routes son, J. W. Draper, Joseph Henry, E. N. Horsto the Pacific. The chief arctic explorers are ford, John Torrey, E. L. Youmans, Campbell Elisha Kent Kane (1820-'57), whose narratives Morfit, and J. P. Cooke, jr. In other branches of the two Grinnell expeditions in search of of natural science the most noted names are Sir John Franklin are among the most in- M. F. Maury, author of the "Physical Geograteresting works of their class yet produced; I. phy of the Sea" and other works, W. C. RedI. Hayes, author of "An Arctic Boat Jour-field, J. P. Espy, and John Brocklesby, distinney," "The Open Polar Sea," and other guished as meteorologists; J. W. Bailey, an works; and C. F. Hall, author of "Arctic Re-eminent microscopist; A. D. Bache, for many searches," whose melancholy fate is recorded years superintendent of the United States coast in the "Arctic Experiences of Capt. G. E. survey; Joseph Henry, who has made imporTyson," edited by E. V. Blake.—The wide field tant discoveries in electro-magnetism; Samuel of natural history has been explored during Forry and Lorin Blodget, climatologists; A. M. this period with results highly creditable to Mayer, distinguished for researches in acoustics; the sagacity and industry of American men of and S. C. Walker, B. A. Gould, G. P. Bond, O. science. The most important work in this M. Mitchel, Denison Olmsted, J. M. Gilliss, Handepartment is the "Birds of America," by nah M. Peterson, Maria Mitchell, W. A. Norton, John James Audubon (1780–1851), remarkable Elias Loomis, Joseph Winlock, D. Kirkwood, for the vivacity of its descriptive passages and Simon Newcomb, C. H. F. Peters, J. C. Watits splendid illustrations. American zoology son, T. H. Safford, S. P. Langley, and C. A. has been further treated by Charles Lucien Young, distinguished chiefly as astronomers. Bonaparte, Thomas Nuttall, J. P. Giraud, John The most eminent mathematician whom the Cassin, S. F. Baird, T. M. Brewer, and Elliott country has yet produced is Nathaniel BowCoues, who have written on ornithology; by ditch (1773-1838), author of a translation, with D. H. Storer, S. L. Mitchill, J. E. De Kay, and a commentary, of Laplace's Mécanique céleste, Le Sueur, on ichthyology; by Louis Agassiz, and of the well known "Practical Navigawhose publications on comparative embryol- tor," now in almost universal use. Other wriogy, ichthyology, the geographical distribu- ters on mathematics are Benjamin Peirce, tion of animals, and analogous subjects, are Charles Davies, C. H. Davis, and Thomas Hill. of the highest order of merit; by J. E. Hol- Many of the above named have been contribubrook, author of the most complete work on tors to the reports and publications of the North American herpetology yet published; Smithsonian institution, or have participated by Thomas Say, T. M. Harris, A. S. Packard, in the scientific labors of the United States C. V. Riley, and J. L. Le Conte, who have exploring expeditions and similar undertakings. written on entomology; and by Zadoc Thomp-Of the numerous works on medicine and son, A. A. Gould, B. S. Barton, T. A. Conrad, J.D. Dana, Isaac Lea, Jeffries Wyman, J. Bachman, J. E. De Kay, J. D. Godman, V. G. Audubon, S. Kneeland, A. E. Verrill, E. S. Morse, A. Agassiz, and others, who have illustrated various branches of the subject. The most eminent writers on botany are Asa Gray, author of several valuable elementary works and manuals; John Torrey, who prepared, sometimes in conjunction with Gray, the botanical reports of most of the United States exploring expeditions; Amos Eaton, Stephen Elliott, C. S. Rafinesque, Thomas Nuttall, W. Darlington, A. B. Strong, Jacob Bigelow, D. J. Browne, Alphonso Wood, W. S. Sullivant, and George Thurber; on geology, President Edward Hitchcock, William Maclure, W. B. and H. D. Rogers, J. G. Percival, Ebenezer Emmons, T. Sterry

surgery produced during this period, it will suffice to mention the "Treatise on the Practice of Medicine," by G. B. Wood; "Dispensatory of the United States," by G. B. Wood and F. Bache; "Elements of Medical Jurisprudence," by J. B. and T. Romeyn Beck; "Elements of Pathological Anatomy," by S. D. Gross; Materia Medica and Therapeutics,] by J. Eberle; "The Principles of Surgery," by W. Gibson; "The Elements of Medicine," by S. H. Dickson; "The Institutes of Medicine," by Martyn Paine; the treatises on "Midwifery" and Diseases of Females," by W. P. Dewees; the treatise on "Obstetrics," by C. D. Meigs; the "Human Physiology" and "Dictionary of Medical Science," by R. Dunglison; "American Medical Botany" and "Nature in Disease," by Jacob Bigelow; "Letters to a

had a prodigious circulation. The chief writers of mathematical text books are Daniel Adams, Warren Colburn, C. W. Hackley, C. Davies, W. G. Peck, E. Loomis, G. R. Perkins, T. Sherwin, B. Greenleaf, F. Emerson, D. Leach, W. M. Gillespie, W. D. Swan, and J. F. Stoddard; and of school geographies, atlases, etc., W. C. Woodbridge, Mrs. Emma Willard, Jesse Olney, J. E. Worcester, R. C. Smith, S. A. Mitchell, F. McNally, Arnold Guyot, Miss S. S. Cornell, and William Swinton.-Among works on the science of war may be mentioned those on military tactics by Lieut. Gen. Winfield Scott (1786-1866) and W. J. Hardee; A. Mordecai's

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Young Physician," by James Jackson; "Sur- | Webster, C. W. Sanders, and S. Town have gical Observations on Tumors," by J. C. Warren; the treatises on "Human Physiology" by J. W. Draper and by J. C. Dalton; the "Treatise on the Principles and Practice of Medicine," by Austin Flint; "The Physiology of Man," by Austin Flint, jr.; and the various works of W. A. Hammond; besides which there are many of reputation by D. Hosack, J. W. Francis, S. G. Morton, S. Forry, J. Bell, P. Earle, O. W. Holmes, G. S. Bedford, Horace Green, C. A. Harris, W. E. Horner, P. S. Physick, C. Wistar, Valentine Mott, J. Pancoast, L. V. Bell, W. W. Sanger, A. Brigham, L. M. Lawson, S. W. Mitchell, T. D. Mütter, Bennet Dowler, J. A. Swett, Daniel Drake," Artillery for the United States Land SerCharles Caldwell, H. H. Smith, E. Parrish, vice;" D. H. Mahan's works on engineering, J. King, A. Stillé, Winslow Lewis, G. Hay- fortifications, &c.; H. W. Halleck's "Eleward, J. M. Smith, P. Townsend, W. W. Ger- ments of Military Art and Science;" J. A. hard, J. R. Cox, P. F. Eve, S. F. Condie, and Dahlgren's "System of Boat Armament" and W. H. Van Buren. The principal writers of "Shells and Shell Guns;" C. B. Stuart's the homeopathic school are Ĉ. Hering, E. "Naval Dry Docks of the United States;" J. E. Marcy, J. H. Pulte, C. J. Hempel, Egbert G. Barnard's "Notes on Sea-coast Defence;" Guernsey, and W. H. Holcombe.-The theory J. H. Ward's "Elementary Course of Instrucof education has occupied a large share of tion in Ordnance and Naval Gunnery;" De the attention of American writers during this Hart's "Constitution and Practice of Courts period; and among many valuable works on Martial;" Col. H. L. Scott's "Dictionary of the subject may be mentioned the "Lectures Military Science;" Upton's "New System of on Education," by Horace Mann (1796-1859); Infantry Tactics;" besides many by J. G. and "National Education in Europe," by Henry B. J. Totten, E. L. Vielé, W. Ñ. Jeffers, jr., Barnard; "The Theory and Practice of Teach-H. D. Grafton, J. G. Benton, Hermann Haupt, ing," by D. P. Page; "The Student's Mannal," by John Todd; "University Education,' by Chancellor H. P. Tappan; "The School and Schoolmaster," by Bishop Alonzo Potter and G. B. Emerson; besides others by F. A. | P. Barnard, William Russell, Barnas Sears, G. F. Thayer, W. A. Alcott, W. C. Woodbridge, Hubbard Winslow, A. B. Alcott, W. H. MeGuffey, J. S. Hart, and S. G. Howe. Under this head may also be included the "Five Years in an English University," by C. A. Bristed; "German Universities," by J. M. Hart (also treated in J. F. Hurst's Five Years' Residence in Germany "); and "American Colleges and other works by Noah Porter. The general excellence and enormous production of school books are perhaps the most remarkable features of American literature. Among these are the Greek lexicons of J. Pickering and H. Drisler; the Latin lexicons of F. P. Leverett and E. A. Andrews; the Latin and Greek grammars and elementary books of Andrews, C. C. Felton, Charles Anthon, J. McClintock, A. C. Kendrick, J. Hadley, J. R. Boise, A. Crosby, A. Harkness, E. A. Sophocles, P. Bullions, and S. H. Taylor; and the editions of classical authors by President T. D. Woolsey, Anthon, Felton, H. S. Frieze, T. A. Thacher, Tayler Lewis, J. J. Owen, J. L. Lincoln, C. S. Wheeler, and C. K. Dillaway. English grammar and composition have been treated by Samuel Kirkham, Goold Brown, J. Greenleaf, P. Bullions, W. H. Wells, Allan Weld, R. G. Parker, G. P. Quackenbos, William Swinton, and others; and the spelling books of Noah

A. L. Holley, S. V. Benét, H. D. Wallen, A. J. Meyer, E. C. Boynton, and others.-Comparatively few authors have written on the fine arts; the most prominent are W. Dunlap, author of a "History of the Arts of Design in America ;" J. J. Jarves, author of "Art Hints" and "Art Thoughts;" Washington Allston, Horatio Greenough, H. T. Tuckerman, B. J. Lossing, W. H. Fry, Mrs. H. F. Lee, Thomas Hastings, W. M. Hunt, and Lowell Mason, who have written upon sculpture, painting, and music. Rural architecture and landscape gardening have been illustrated by A. J. Downing (1815-'52) in a number of gracefully written treatises and essays; and Samuel Sloan, C. Vaux, G. Wheeler, T. W. Walter, R. Upjohn, M. Field, and others have published general works on architecture. Of the numerous works produced on agricultural and horticultural subjects may be cited "European Agriculture and Rural Economy," by H. Colman; the "Farmer's Companion" and "Farmer's Instructor," by Jesse Buel; E. Ruffin's "Calcareous Manures;" R. L. Allen's "American Herd Book" and "New American Farm Book;" R. Buist's "American Flower Garden Directory;" Downing's "Fruit and Fruit Trees of America;" "The Fruit Garden," by P. Barry; "The Fruit Trees of America," by C. M. Hovey; "The Muck Manual," by S. L. Dana; H. S. Randall's "Sheep Husbandry;" L. T. Smith's "American Farmer's HandBook;" G. E. Waring's "Elements of Agriculture" J. J. Thomas's "Farm Implements and Machinery;" besides many valuable pub

in flesh; that he was sent of God to be the Saviour of the world, and that he will actually save it, because God would not offer, nor would Christ accept, a mission which both knew would end in failure; therefore, they say, the work of redemption will be thorough and universal. III. OF MAN. They believe that Adam was created upright, but liable to sin; that all men are formed, as Adam was, in the moral image of God; and that this image, though it may be disfigured by sin, can never be wholly lost. Faith and regeneration remove the stains and defilements of sin, and renew or reform the soul in the divine likeness. IV. OF REGENERATION. They believe the new birth to be that thorough change of heart which takes place when a man, wrought upon by divine truth and grace, forsakes his sins, or turns from his former life of worldliness and indifference toward God and the Sa

lications by J. S. Skinner, C. L. Flint, J. J. Mapes, S. W. Johnson, D. J. Browne, T. Bridgman, W. Gaylord, L. Tucker, G. H. Dodd, J. Harris, H. S. Olcott, and others. The useful manuals of Mrs. Hale, Miss C. E. Beecher, Miss Leslie, and Mrs. Terhune represent the contributions to domestic economy. J. R. Snowden and W. C. Prime are the principal writers on numismatics; E. Jarvis, L. Shattuck, J. Chickering, J. D. B. De Bow, and F. A. Walker represent the statisticians; James Renwick | and Thomas Ewbank the writers on mechanics; H. W. Herbert has a unique reputation as a writer on field sports in America; and C. E. Lester has been a prolific miscellaneous author. Among the miscellaneous literature of the period may be classed the numerous volumes of "Collections" and "Memoirs" illustrating the national history, published by the historical societies of the several states, particularly by those of Massachusetts, New York, and Penn-viour, and is drawn into fellowship with the sylvania. The "Archæologia Americana," or transactions of the American antiquarian society, form also a valuable contribution to the archæological literature of the country. Lastly, the foundations of American bibliography have been laid by the valuable works of Isaiah Thomas, O. A. Roorbach, G. P. Putnam, Nicholas Trübner, H. E. Ludewig, H. Ternaux, H. Stevens, O. Rich, E. B. O'Callaghan, F. Leypoldt, and Joseph Sabin. (See NEWSPAPERS, and PERIODICALS.)

UNIVERSALISTS, a religious denomination, holding the final destruction of evil, and the restoration of all souls through Jesus Christ. The following statement probably represents the belief of the great majority of Universalists of the present day. I. OF GOD. They believe that God is infinite in all his perfections, creating man with the fixed purpose that the existence he was about to bestow should prove a final and everlasting blessing; that, foreseeing all the temptations, transgressions, and struggles of man, he shaped his government, laws, and penalties with express reference to these emergencies, and adapted the spiritual forces to the final overcoming of all evil; that being almighty, he can convert and save a world of sinners as easily as he converted and saved Saul of Tarsus or Matthew the publican, and without any more violation of "free agency "in the one case than in the other. They also believe in the perfection of the divine justice; and affirm, on this ground, that God would not impose on finite beings a law infinite in its demands and penalties; but that, being perfectly just, he will deal with every man according to his works, whether good or bad. II. OF CHRIST. They uniformly reject the doctrine of the Trinity, making Christ subordinate to the Father. They believe that he is gifted with spirit and power above all other intelligences; that he is "God manifest in the flesh," i. e., that God has displayed in him the brightness of his glory and the express image of his person, as in no other being tabernacled VOL. XVI.-14

Holy Spirit, and, thus quickened into new spiritual vitality, consecrates himself to a life of active goodness and piety. This new birth is not supernatural, but the result of appointed means suitably improved. The Holy Spirit blesses the use of these means, and moves upon the heart of the sinner, encouraging, comforting, assisting, sanctifying. They do not believe in instantaneous regeneration, though they teach that there may be a turning point in the life of every man, when his attention is specially directed to religion. Conversion is only the commencement of religious effort. V. OF SALVATION. They teach that salvation is not shelter nor safety, nor escape from present or future punishment. It is inward and spiritual, and not from any outward evil, but deliverance from error, unbelief, sin, the tyranny of the flesh and its hurtful lusts, into the liberty and blessedness of a holy life, and supreme love to God and man. This is an important doctrinal and practical point with Universalists, and is constantly enforced in their preaching and writings. They urge on all to seek salvation, not from the torments of a future hell, but from the present captivity of sin. In reply to the objection that millions die in sin, in pagan ignorance and unbelief, they answer that no one is wholly saved in this life, but that all men are saved, in a greater or less degree, after death; and assert that the power of Christ over the soul does not cease with the death of the body, but that he continues the work of enlightenment and redemption till he surrenders the kingdom to the Father, which does not take place till after the resurrection is complete. VI. OF THE RESURRECTION. The resurrection is not merely a physical but a moral and spiritual change. It is not only clothing the soul with an incorruptible body, but it is an anastasis, a raising up, an exaltation of the whole being into the power and glory of the heavenly; for, "as we have borne the image of the earthy, we shall also bear the image of the heavenly." It is a change, they