general too intense to permit repetition of the meaning; a single presentation is made to do duty for both. This presentation will, of course, be either of the second or the third kind, often a close intermingling of both. We will illustrate by the opening lines of The Holy Grail:

From noiseful arms, and acts of prowess done
In tournament or tilt, Sir Percival,

Whom Arthur and his knighthood called The Pure,
Had passed into the silent life of prayer,
Praise, fast, and alms; and leaving for the cowl
The helmet in an abbey far away

From Camelot, there, and not long after, died.

It is interesting to note how completely the literal, "prose" meanings are evaded, or expressed by implication only. This, it must be remembered, is not to prevent triteness, but to induce higher experiences than mere facts can bring. The passage is essentially equivalent, with the literal and interpretative meanings merged, to this:

From (wars, where the chief commerce is with deadly weapons, and there is great tumult and outery) noiseful arms ("Third Way"), and from (fighting in tilts and tournaments, in which, though all in sport, deeds of real bravery are often done) acts of prowess done in tournament or tilt ("Second Way"), Sir Percival, whom (Arthur and his knights believed wholly true to his vows, whom Arthur and his knights recognized to have reached the ideal of purity to which they were sworn) Arthur and his knighthood called The Pure ("degree-effect" of character, "Third Way"), had (entered an abbey, where he was giving himself to praying, fasting, and vigils) passed into the silent life of prayer, praise, fast, and alms (Second Way"); and (laying aside his helmet and taking in its place a cowl) leaving for the cowl the helmet ("Second Way"), in an abbey (not near by, but distant a long way from the brilliant scenes of his former life) far away from Camelot ("Third Way "), there, and not long after, died.

The italicized portions repeat interpretatively the plain-prose unitalicized meanings which precede in the same parenthesis. The interpretation in each case is in the same mode or "Way" as the expressions of Tennyson following the parenthesis. Tennyson's interpretations, as will be here observed, are much condensed, and often hinder ready comprehension of the poetic meaning. For instance, "Camelot," in the last line, is put associationally and interpretatively for the flower of Arthur's cities, the home of all his chivalry and glory. Most readers, not remembering, perhaps, the magic work of Merlin in building its walls and palaces, take Camelot as merely a geographic and plain-prose word, and so miss the finer sense intended. The last six words of the passage, "there, and not long after, died," it will be noted, are not interpretative, but prosaic, though compact and strong. Tennyson is never prolix, and generally in open

ing paragraphs, as here, is conspicuously condensed and pointed. There is always some admixture of uninterpretative or prosaic diction in the highest poetry. The passage just considered, while showing little of prosaic quality, is hardly a typical specimen of the best interpretative work. The fourth line, "Had passed into the silent life of prayer," is the best stroke in it. The next best bit of interpretation, "leaving for the cowl the helmet," is a deft and potent turn. Its effectiveness as a truth-interpretation comes, of course, from the clearness with which, as an "effect of degree of mood," it indicates the motive of Sir Percival's action. To say that a famous knight brings a helmet to exchange for a monkish hood is to declare the spiritual quality of a great transformation. The Second Mode exhibits the true inwardness of an act or mood. It traces to the lowest plane of inquiry the Truth principles, the "how it was," of any fact or happening.

Tennyson's interpretations, as has been said, are prevailingly of the Third or Beauty kind. Open where we may, we shall find quick proof how much more his mind is open to beauty than to views and experiences of truth. With a poet like Emerson the reverse is true. Nothing in literature is more grandly interpretative in the Truth way than his line on the embattled farmers at Concord, who stood

"And fired the shot heard round the world.” Emerson is not easy reading to a public much accustomed to the We Are Seven school of poetry, but in isolated passages his power is universal. What could be finer than "the things to be felt put for things to be known," after the Truth manner, in lines like these?

"So nigh is grandeur to our dust,
So near is God to man,

When Duty whispers low, thou must,
The youth replies, I can.”

"Virtue alone is sweet society,

It keeps the key to all heroic hearts, And opens you a welcome in them all." With these quotations compare the following (l. 115-123) from The Holy Grail:

"and then

Streamed through my cell a cold and silver beam, And down the long beam stole the Holy Grail, Rose-red with beatings in it, as if alive, Till all the white walls of my cell were dyed With rosy colors leaping on the wall; And then the music faded, and the Grail Past, and the beam decayed, and from the walls The rosy quiverings died into the night." Here there is nothing prosaic, nothing interpretative in the Second or Truth Mode. The

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treatment is wholly impressionistic and visualizing, with the effect of many experiences of the unconditioned, in the Idealizing or Beauty Way.

VI.

Interpretation is, then, the poet's secret, a secret he has himself not always consciously known. Poets who are not real masters of their craft sometimes try to make up for their lack of message by morbid and sensational meanings, or fill out their pages with dreary prose-poetic lines. The true poet, though sometimes a scer or revealer, is for the most part merely an interpreter of truths and beauties potential to the mass of men. The great masters in the prose field render society a service essentially the same in kind, but generally not so great in degree.

Making literature, whether in prose or poetry, is interpretation of ulterior or primal meanings. This is the first great truth, or law, of Rhetoric. Let us turn first to the great prose exemplars, and note how far they illustrate and verify the principle now reached. The first quotation shall be a paragraph of Truth interpre tation from Ruskin's Queen of the Air:

"Now we have two orders of animals to take some note of in connection with Athena, and one vast order of plants, which will lustrate this matter very sufficiently for us.

"The orders of animals are the serpent and the bird; the serpent in which the breath or spirit is less than in any other creature, and the earth-power greatest; the bird, in which the breath or spirit is more full than in any other creature, and the earth-power least.

We will take the bird first.

It is little more than a drift of the air brought into form by plumes; the air is in all its quills, it breathes through its whole frame and flesh, and glows with air in its flying, like blown flame; it rests upon the air, subdues it, surpasses it, outraces it :-is the air, conscious of itself, conquering itself, ruling ilself.

"Also, into the throat of the bird is given the voice of the air. All that in the wind itself is weak, wild, useless in sweetness, is knit together in its song. Also upon the plumes of the bird are put the colors of the air: on these the gold of the cloud, that cannot be gathered by any covetousness, the rubies of the clouds, that are not the price of Athena, but are Athena; the vermilion of the cloud-bar, and the flame of the cloud-crest, and the snow of the cloud, and its shadow, and the melted blue of the deep wells of the sky-all these seized by the creating spirit, and woven by Athena herself into films and threads of plume: with wave on wave following and fading along breast, and throat, and opened wings, infinite as the dividing of the foam and the sifting of the sea-sand.

"And so the spirit of the Air is put into, and upon, this created form; and it becomes, through twenty centuries, the symbol of divine help, as the Fire, to speak, but as the Dove, to bless.

"Next, in the serpent, we approach the source of a group of myths, world-wide, founded on great and common human instincts, respecting which I must note one or two points which bear intimately on all our subject. For it seems to me that the scholars who are at present occupied in interpretation of human my ths have most of them forgotten that there are any such things as natural myths; and that the dark sayings of men may be both difficult to read, and not

.

always worth reading; but the dark sayings of nature will probably become clearer for the looking into, and will very certainly be worth reading. .The serpent-crest of the king's crown, or of the god's, on the pillars of Egypt is a mystery; but the serpent itself, gliding past the pillar's foot, is it less a mystery? Is there indeed no tongue, except the mute forked flash from its lips, in that running brook of horror upon the ground?

But it is the strength of the base element that is so dreadful in the serpent; it is the very omnipotence of the earth. That rivulet of smooth silver-how does it flow, think you? It literally rows on the earth, with every scale for an oar; it bites the dust with the ridges of its body. Watch it, when it moves slowly:-a wave, but without wind : a current but with no fall. Startle it; the winding stream will become a twisted arrow ;-the wave of poisoned life will lash through the grass like a cast lance. It scarcely breathes with its one lung (the other shriveled and abortive); it is passive to the sun and shade, and is cold or hot like a stone; yet it can outclimb the monkey, outswim the fish, outleap the zebra, outwrestle the athlete, and crush the tiger." It is a divine hieroglyph of the demoniac power of the earth, of the entire earthly nature. As the bird is the clothed power of the air, so this is the clothed power of the dust; as the bird is the symbol of the spirit of life, so this of the grasp and sting of death."

Mr. Ruskin's remarks about myths-not quoted fully here-as the products of interpretation are interesting as in the line of treatment attempted in these papers. The next example shall be from Cardinal Newman's Historical Sketches, "On the Site of a University," which, except in the first two sentences, is interpretative in the Third or Beauty Way:

"A confined triangle, perhaps fifty miles its greatest length, and thirty its greatest breadth; two elevated rocky barriers, meeting at an angle; three prominent mountains, commanding the plain,-Parnes, Pentelicus, and Hymettus; an unsatisfactory soil; some streams, not always full; such is about the report which the agent of a London company would have made of Attica. He would report that the climate was mild: the hills were of limestone; there was plenty of good marble; figs fair; oil first-rate; olives in profusion. But what he would not think of noting down, was, that that olive tree was so choice in nature and so noble in shape that it excited a religious veneration; and that it took so kindly to the light soil, as to expand into woods on the open plain, and to climb up and fringe the hills. He would not think of writing word to his employers, how that clear air, of which I have spoken, brought out, yet blended and subdued, the colours on the marble, till they had a softness and harmony, for all their richness, which in a picture looks exaggerated, yet is after all within the truth. He would not tell how that same delicate and brilliant atmosphere freshened up the pale olive, till the olive forgot its monotony, and its cheek glowed like the arbutus or beech of the Umbrian hills. He would say nothing of the thyme and the thousand fragrant herbs which carpeted Hymettus; he would hear nothing of the hum of its bees; nor take much account of the rare flavour of its honey, since Gozzo and Minorca were sufficient for the English demand. would look over the Egean from the height he had ascended; he would follow with his eye the chain of islands, which starting from the Sunian headland, seemed to offer the fabled divinities of Attica, when they would visit their Ionian cousins, a sort of viaduct thereto across the sea: but that fancy would not occur to him, nor any admiration of the dark violet billows with their white edges down below; nor of those graceful, fan-like jets of silver upon the rocks, which slowly rise aloft like water spirits from the deep, then shiver, and break, and spread, and shroud themselves, and

He

disappear in a soft mist of foam; nor of the gentle, incessant heaving and panting of the whole liquid plain; nor of the long waves, keeping steady time, like a line of soldiery, as they resound upon the hollow shore,-he would not deign to notice that restless living element at all except to bless his stars that he was not upon it. Nor the distinct details, nor the refined colouring, nor the graceful outline and roseate golden hue of the jutting crags, nor the bold shadows cast from Otus or Saurium by the declining sun;-our agent of a mercantile firm would not value these matters even at a low figure. Rather must we turn for the sympathy we seek to you pilgrim student, come from a semi-barbarous land

to that small corner of the earth, as to a shrine where he might take his fill of gazing on those emblems and coruscations of invisible and inoriginate perfection. It was the stranger from a remote province, from Britain or from Mauritania, who in a scene so different from that of his chilly, woody swamps, or of his fiery, choking sands, learned what a real University must be, by coming to understand the sort of country which was its suitable home."

L. A. SHERMAN, University of Nebraska.

I.

CHE several colonies were planted at different times, by different interests, and in some cases by different races. The geography of the country was such that there was very little communication and intercourse between the various colonies for many years. The soil and climate also tended to produce divergent interests and civilizations. The intolerant religious spirit of the age lent itself also to the same tendency. On the whole, one sometimes wonders that the colonies came together as easily as they did in support of interests that were not always clearly in common.

It is very difficult frequently to find an extract that is sufficiently condensed and pointed, which may be cited, to bring out some force that tended to prevent union or was, on the other hand, aiding it. Especially have I found it dif ficult to get quotable extracts on the effects of geography. In general it is by inference only that one gathers his conclusions. In the extracts given it has in general seemed best to give those that brought out the salient movements looking toward union, rather than to give those that emphasized the divergent tendencies of the time. I wish to emphasize the fact that the study of sources means that every word and phrase is to receive careful consideration. The value of the training consists to a considerable extent in acquiring the ability to read between the lines, to draw inferences, to find the spirit or motive which prompted to word or act.

It is hoped that the extracts quoted this month may illustrate not only the fact that various attempts to unite were made, but also drive home the character of the union possible, and the kind of union which the colonies sought and

which the mother country attempted to force on them. It will be an interesting exercise to trace the expansion of the idea of union and to classify the factors which were at work; also to follow the changes in the nature of the union which were outlined in the various proposals from 1643 to 1776. Less weight has been given to the congresses of 1765 and 1774 than might seem necessary from their prominence. The reason for this is that the union movement then was rather unconscious, an accessory to the more palpable thoughts,-first that of a redress of grievances, and later that of independence. The Causes of the Revolution, which will be our subject for next month, will give us the opportunity to study this period as it deserves.

The extracts this month are taken largely from the colonial records as reprinted by the various states. Massachusetts began this work as early as 1792 and has developed it till now her various historical publications are num bered almost by the hundreds. New York has also reprinted, or printed from manuscript, thousands of pages of letters, laws, reports, and other documents. The same is true of Connec ticut and other states. It is from these documents that we can draw and yet scarcely make an impression in the limited space at our command.

I wish to thank the many who write words of encouragement concerning the work which we are attempting to outline. Certainly the idea that history may be studied in part from the sources in our graded schools is spreading. In some cases it is well done, as I know by receipt of the results in the form of papers. I desire to call the attention of teachers elsewhere to the plan of the West Superior, Wis., schools, where

the papers are printed in a neat little volume, 100 copies printed, costing less than $16. The local paper published each student paper as it was completed, then put them together at a mere nominal cost. I doubt not that every town has some local paper that would do likewise. Principal Griffin has evidently found an added incentive to good work, and even to real contributions to local history in some cases.

But I wish also to say that some criticisms come to me. One teacher suggests that the spelling of her pupils is not improved by working over the old manuscripts. Shall the spelling be modernized, or shall we have the old flavor of our forefathers, trusting to some device to avoid the evil, if such it be, of which mention has been made? Will not the teachers discuss this question pro and con in letters to me? Perhaps a more serious danger is suggested by another who says: How do we know that Mr. Caldwell can or does make extracts in such a way as to give a true picture of the times? How do we know that the writers he cites are representative, are good witnesses? Well, the mere fact that such questions can be asked shows that in part, at least, our work is done. The critical faculty is awake, and the word of any one text will perhaps not necessarily be unhesitatingly followed hereafter. I can only answer that I try to be fair. My judgment is not infallible, and my knowledge is not encyclopædic, so I can only ask such confidence as an honest desire deserves. By all means correct me by every available source, and the end that we seek will be gained.

II.

As early as 1637 references may be found in the colonial records pointing to a desire for union among the colonies. The following extracts will afford some insight into the motives and spirit that animated them in their actions at this time:

It is ordered that the letter lately sent to the Governor by Mr. Eaton, Mr. Hopkins, Mr. Haynes, Mr. Coddington, & Mr. Brereton, shalbee thus answered by the Governor that the Court doth assent to all the ppositions (propositions) layde downe in the aforesaid letter, but that the answere shalbee directed to Mr. Eaton, Mr. Hopkins, & Mr. Haynes, onely excluding Mr. Coddington & Mr. Brenton, as men not to bee capitulated wthall by us, either for themselves or the people of the iland (Rhode Island) where they inhabite, as their case standeth. [Oct. 7, 1640.]—Massachu setts Colonial Records, I, p. 305.

1. At this court (7 Mo. 22 day 1642) the propositions sent from Connecticut [to Massachusetts] about a combination, &c were read, and referred to a committee to consider of after the court, who meeting, added some few cautions and new articles, and for the taking in of Plimouth (who were now willing,) and Sir Ferdinando Gorges province, and so returned them back to Connecticut, to be considered upon against the spring, for winter was now approaching, and there could be no meeting before, etc.-Winthrop, History of New England, II, pp. 102-103.

2. At this court (Mo. 3, 10, 1643) came the commissioners from Plimouth, Connecticut and New Haven, viz: from Plimouth Mr. Edward Winslow and Mr. Collins, from Connecticut Mr. Haynes and Mr. Hopkins, with whom Mr. Fenwick of Saybrook joyned, from New Haven Mr. Theophilus Eaton and Mr. Grigson. Our court chose a committee to treat with them viz: the governour [John Winthrop] and Mr. Dudley, and Mr. Brodstreet, being of the magistrates; and of the deputies, Captain Gibbons, Mr. Tyng the treasurer and Mr. Hathorn. These coming to consultation encountered some difficulties, but being all desirous of union and studious of peace, they readily yielded each to other in such things as tended to common utility, &c, so as in some two or three meetings they lovingly accorded upon these ensuing articles, which, being allowed by, our court, and signed by all the commissioners, were sent to be also ratified by the general courts of other jurisdictions; Winthrop, History of New England, vol. II, p. 121f.

By reason of ye plottings of the Narigansets, the Indians were drawn into a general conspiracie against ye English in all parts, as was in part discovered ye yeare before ; [this caused the Colonies] to thinke of means how to prevente ye same, and secure them selves. Which made them enter into this neu union & confederation following. [The articles follow.]-Bradford, History of Plymouth Plantation, p. 416.

ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION.

WHEREAS We all came into these parts of America with the same end and aim, namely, to advance the kingdom of our Lord Jesus Christ, and to enjoy the liberties of the gospel in purity with peace; and whereas by our settling, by the wise providence of God, we are further dispersed upon the seacoast and rivers than was at first intended, so that we cannot, according to our desire, with convenience communicate in one government : and whereas we live encompassed with people of several nations and strange languages, which hereafter may prove injurious to us or our posterity; and for as much as the natives have formerly committed sundry insolences, ... and have of late combined themselves against us, and seeing by reason of the sad distractions in England (which they have heard of,) and by which they know we are hindered . . of seeking advice, and reaping

protection, which at other times we might well expect; we therefore do conceive it our bounden duty, . to enter into a present consociation .. for mutual help and strength that,

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II. These united colonies enter into a firm and perpetual league of friendship and amity . . . both for preserving and propagating the truth and liberties of the gospel, and for safety

III. It is further agreed, that the plantations which at present are or hereafter shall be settled within the limits of the Massachusetts, shall be forever under the government of the Massachusetts, and shall have jurisdiction among themselves in all cases as an entire body; [same provision follows in regard to Connecticut, Plymouth, and New Haven.] provided that no other jurisdiction shall . . taken in as a distinct head or member of this confederation, nor shall any other be received by any of them; nor shall any two join in one jurisdiction, without

be

agreed, that the charge of all shall, both in men and provisions

in manner following, viz. [in propor

tion to number of males from 16 to 60 years of age.] V. It is further agreed, that if any of these jurisdictions, ... be invaded by any enemy whatsoever, upon notice and request of any three [or two under conditions] magistrates of that jurisdiction so invaded, the rest of the confederates, shall ... send aid

.

[as fol

.

to

all affairs of war

[This section also

VIII. . . It is also agreed, that if any servant run away from his master into any of these confederate jurisdictions, .. upon certificate of one magistrate in the jurisdiction out of which the said servant fled, said servant shall be delivered to his master general the same provision in regard to criminals.] XI. [The last article pertains to breaches of the articles.] Lastly, this perpetual confederation, and the several articles and agreements were . . certified [as completed] at the next meeting held in Boston, (7) 7, 1643. -Winthrop, History of New England, vol. II, p. 121f.

The English Commissioners to New England, in 1665, pass the following, among other resolutions:

There is no power in the charter [of Massachusetts] to incorporate with other colonjes, nor to exercise any power by that association: both belongs to the kings prerogative. If there be any other undecent expressions & repetitions of the word " commonwealth, 'state, and the like, in other pages, wee desire they may bee changed.-Massachusetts Colonial Records, vol. IV, pt. 2, p. 213.

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To this the General Court of Massachusetts sent the following reply:

And also considering that they were severall colonjes under one king, & come from their native country for one & the same end, & were here scattered at a great distance amongst the wild salvages in a vast wilderness, had no walled tounes or garrisons of souldjers for their defence, they apprehended the least they could doe was to enter into a league of amity and union one with another, ingaging, jointly to assist each other this being to the end

the end of their then confœderating, that as our distance of place one from another rendered us weake, & layd us open to their rage and violence, so our union might be as well to them a terror as to us strength; & through the goodness of God, wee have hitherto had large experience of the great good that by this confoederation hath redounded, not only to all his majesties subjects here planted, but even to the natives themselves, it having been a means to prevent much trouble & bloodshed among themselves, so that although since that warr [the Pequod] some of them have . put us to a considerable charge

yet no massacre hath beene among us from that day to this, blessed be God for it. -Massachusetts Colonial Records, vol. IV, pt. 2, p. 231.

Again, the General Court says that the commissioners seem to desire

to make a flame in the country

by their high favors to discontented persons, & great countenance given to the Road Islanders, whose first rise and continuance hath beene such to the other colonjes as is not unknowne to any discreet observer in these parts; and on the other hand, calling the United Colonjes that usurped authoritje contrary to the light of reason, which therefore made it seeme to be their speciall design to disunite the colonjes & so to bring us unto ruine. -Ib., pp. 233-34.

To the Assembly of Maryland, by Jacob Leisler.

em

A. D. 1689 29th September in the fort of New York. GENTLEMEN-I have received your acceptable letter the 18 of this instant & communicated as directed, wee have considered the contents with due affection, &'. brace with all our hearts your offers of a mutuall & amiable correspondence with you, which we shall labor to keep & preserve inviolable towards you, and without fail shall omitt nothing that may appeare any wayes to your intrest peace & welfare as we also doe with Boston & Connecticutt collony being of the same opinion with you, that it is the onely means to preserve .their majestie's interests. [King William and Queen Mary). ... [Similar letters sent to Mass., Conn., etc.]—Documentary History of New York, vol. II, p. 19.

Agents of four colonies and several Indian chiefs met in 1684 to consider union. One of the sachems addressed the Massachusetts agent as follows:

We all, namely, our governor, the governor of Virginia and the Massachusetts Coloney, and Maquese, are in one We do plant here a great tree of peace, whose

covenant.