INTRODUCTION

ARGUMENTATION is the art of producing in others a belief in the ideas which we wish them to accept.

Belief is an element which is most truly fundamental in the ability of man to grow and in his power to create. It is the beliefs of the individual about religion, about politics, and about society, which determine his attitude toward men and events, and which govern his actions in the affairs of life. Moreover, a man's belief is rarely, if ever, entirely original: his creed is wrought out of the ideas of priests and prophets; his political principles are made up of materials taken from economists and statesmen ; his social tendencies are influenced by the theories of philosophers and reformers; and in all his conceptions, far more than he can realize, he is influenced by the opinions of his daily, companions. So that the revelation of truth and the establishment of justice in human affairs must depend largely upon the power of those who stand at any time for what is true and just, to control the convictions of their fellows and so to make them see the best and seek after it. What, then, of the art whose work it is "to produce beliefs in the minds of others"? Must it not be respected and cultivated as the embodiment of much that is worthiest in human thought and action?

But argumentation is worthy of respect and study, not simply because it is one of the noblest and most truly creative of the arts, but also because it is so nearly universal and indispensable. We find its uses made manifest in nearly every branch of affairs: in the legislative assembly the struggles of parties are settled and policies worked out from them by argument; in the court room it is argument which decides the conflicting claims of individuals, determines their rights and privileges, and regulates the duties of the citizen to the State; if churchmen meet to formulate their beliefs, they must argue in order to reconcile their varied ideas and tenets and harmonize them in a single creed; in the meeting room of the directors of a corporation it is by argument that its members determine what is honorable and what is expedient; and, wherever in the home or on the street men differ about their private concerns, they argue to adjust their differences and find the truth. Indeed, wherever active-minded men with opinions meet, there is sure to be argumentation.

The nature of argumentation, concerned as it is with the forces that control the thoughts and acts of men, discloses the first and most elementary of all its principles. There are two more or less distinct elements in human beliefs, viz., reason and emotion. Of these two elements it is sufficiently accurate to say that reason is the guiding power and emotion the moving power. Consequently, in order to make another individual think or act as we desire, we must,

with rare exceptions, affect both these elements. Successful argumentation, therefore, must almost always be of a twofold nature: it must contain an appeal to the intellect and an appeal to the will; or, in other words, it must contain both conviction and persuasion.

By the force of pure reasoning a man may make others see that this or that statement is justified, that this or that argument is logical, or even that the whole idea he is contending for is true; but it does not follow that he has made them believe in the propositions he advances. In order to make them fully accept his views of the matter or agree to act as he wishes, the arguer must also affect their wills by appealing to their emotions. The weakness of any argumentative effort which consists only of conviction, i.e. an appeal to the reason, is this: that, though the person addressed may understand, he may not really believe, because the impulses which give force to his inmost convictions, and which stimulate him to action, may not have been reached.

The purely emotional appeal is no more effective than the simple intellectual demonstration. It is of no advantage for a speaker or a writer to stimulate the moving impulses of his audience unless he can hold them in control; for he may find he has set free a force that is as likely to act to his detriment as to his benefit. Then, too, he will probably find that the effect of his appeal is but fleeting and unreliable; he will find his hearers are only stirred to shallow and

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passing excitement, and that calm deliberation will reveal the unsubstantial nature of the argument and so leave their permanent beliefs unaffected.

Consequently, argumentation, "whatever be its form, proposes to itself two objects: (1) to convince the hearer that the contemplated act is his duty, or will promote his virtue or his happiness; and (2) to urge upon him the ideas which are embodied in the act with such force as to arouse in him a controlling impulse to perform it." The proportion of conviction and persuasion in any particular case must, of course, depend upon the circumstances: in a college debate little persuasion is needed; the campaign orator uses but little conviction. Both, however, are necessary in all effective argumentation.

Whatever the relative amounts or importance of conviction and persuasion, in every piece of argumentative work there are four processes indispensable in the execution: (1) to find out just what you want to establish; (2) to gather the materials needed for the proofs; (3) to arrange these materials; (4) to present them in good rhetorical or oratorical form. For convenience we may name these four processes respectively (I) Invention, (II) Selection, (III) Arrangement, and (IV) Presentation.

I. Invention consists in determining upon those ideas in the truth of which the speaker or writer wishes to make his hearer or reader believe. No man can hope to influence the beliefs of others unless he first 1 Robinson, "Forensic Oratory."

has in his own mind an exact idea of the convictions he wishes to inculcate, and a clear conception of the points of fact he must establish to convince his readers or hearers, and the kinds of emotional appeal he must use to persuade them.

II. Selection consists in choosing from all the sources of human knowledge those facts and inferences that will serve to establish the ideas determined upon. Of all the evidence and arguments that may be found on any question, the arguer can use and wishes to use a comparatively small amount, and his success must depend in great degree upon his tact and good judgment in choosing for his use those materials that will appeal strongly to the minds and hearts of those he seeks to influence.

III. Arrangement consists in ordering these selected materials in such a way as to secure the maximum effect upon the beliefs of the persons addressed. However valuable the facts or appeals chosen for use may be, their efficiency will depend upon the plan in accordance with which they are utilized, for they cannot be presented clearly or forcibly except as they are brought into proper relations with each other and with the whole proof.

IV. Presentation consists in putting the materials into good rhetorical or oratorical form. To convey to another the ideas invented, selected, and arranged, demands a many-sided skill. In written argument it calls for the application of the principles of rhetoric; in spoken argument it calls for oratorical ability; in