the neeskotting and wigwassing of the New England coast. The hunter and trapper, from the earliest times, has been indebted to the Indians for devices peculiar to the chase. The The "moose-call, e. g., in use by white hunters to-day, goes back to the Micmacs. Details of trailing game animals, etc., are now the common possession of the white man and the red. Agriculture and Agricultural Processes. It is in this field of human activities that borrowings often take place very early under race-contact. The methods are often simple and the needs of survival imperative. America affords a number of excellent illustrations of such culture influence working from the "lower " to the "higher " races. The extent to which many of the Indian tribes of the United States and Canada practiced agriculture in pre-Columbian times is still still rather underestimated by some authorities, although the statements of the more reliable of the early discoverers, explorers, and colonists leave us in no doubt upon this particular point. Dr. Richard Lasch, in his monograph on Agriculture among Primitive Peoples (1904) calls attention to the remarkably large corn fields of some of the eastern and western Indian tribes (p. 262) and Professor Cyrus Thomas, writing of agriculture in the Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico (Pt. i., 1907), cites the evidence of Cartier, Champlain, Sagard, Charlevoix, de Tonty, General Wayne, etc., as to the large fields of corn all over the country. Sagard (1636) is on record as saying with reference to the Hurons, that he "lost his way quicker in these fields than in the prairies or forests;" and General Wayne (1794) said of the Miami country," nor have I ever before beheld such immense fields of corn in any part of America from Canada to Florida." Another proof of the extent to which the Indians carried on the cultivation of maize, is the immense amount of corn both standing and in the dry ear destroyed by the French and English during the Indian wars, particularly in the Eighteenth century, throughout the territory of the Iroquois, in what is now the State of New York, etc. It is due to the cultivation and the storage of maize to such an extent by the Indians that the survival of the whites and their occupation of the continent were possible at the time at which they actually occurred. Professor Thomas is quite right in speaking of "maize, without which the peopling of America would probably have been delayed for a century." The general distribution of the plant had already long ago taken place, and from from the Indians "the whites learned the methods of planting, storing and using it." It was a fact of the profoundest significance for the future history of America that the aborigines of the northeastern and eastern sections of North America AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL PROCESSES. were in such measure agriculturists, and not mere wandering nomads unacquainted with the arts of planting, nurturing, and harvesting. The cultivation of beans, squashes, pumpkins, gourds, etc., was also quite extensive in certain sections of the country, notably in what is now the Southern States. Here, again, these plants and their cultivation for food. purposes were taken over by the whites from the Indians. In the early days of the East, and later on, when the primitive stages of civilization were created in the winning of the West, many wild roots, often styled 66 onions," "turnips," and not infrequently branded also with the name "Indian," serve to eke out the foodsupplies of the conquering race. The lesson given to the whites by the Indians in corn-planting began early in New England. Governor Bradford tells how, in April, 1621, the Indian Squanto taught the colonists how to" set" corn and how to manure it properly, after the native fashion. It was from the Indians also that the English learned to plant corn in hills, and to plant corn and beans together, or corn and pumpkins in the same field, etc. Says Professor Thomas: "With the exception of better tillage, the method of cultivation (of maize) is much the same to-day among civilized men as among the natives." Much interesting information concerning maize and maize-products will be found in Professor Harshberger's Maize: a Bo 73 tanical and Economic Study (1893) and A. C. Parker's more recent monograph on Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants (1910). The author of the last work is himself of Indian descent, and has been able to collect and set forth facts that might easily have escaped another observer among so typical a corn-growing and corn-using people as the Senecas. The cultivation of certain varieties of beans, and of several species of squashes, pumpkins, etc., was also taken over by the European settlers in eastern North America from the Indians, and these food-plants have all been of great service to them. North of the Rio Grande the cultivation of the tobacco-plant was not as extensive among the Indian tribes as was that of maize, and its spread to some sections of the country, or at least the increase in its production, was in some measure due to the fact that the whites in the Virginia-Maryland region made it for some time their agricultural staple, neglecting other things so much as to run the risk of famine and starvation. The Indians of the Southeast, however, cultivated it largely, and a few tribes further north (e. g. the Blackfeet) seem later on to have planted much of it, while among the Iroquoian peoples we find the Tionontati, of what is now the Province of Ontario, early known as the "Nation du Petun " ("Tobacco Nation ") from their possession of such large fields of tobacco. With the Indians, smoking tobacco was more of a ceremonial or hygienic and medicinal procedure than the common practice it has since become among white men and others all over the world, and the great increase in its use in North America resulted from the abundant crops produced by the colonists in combination with huge quantities of pipes "made in Europe" for the native trade. Such Indians in the United States and Canada as chew tobacco have acquired the habit from the whites. Tobacco was introduced into England by Sir Francis Drake in 1578 (the plant had reached Europe through the Spaniards half-a-century earlier), where as elsewhere in the Old World, its medicinal virtues were exaggerated and it "was commonly used throughout Europe as an antidote against the plague and other diseases." Thus, both in the New World and the Old, its common use by young and old, men and women-one of the problems of modern society among civilized nations-is secondary and not primary. The Indian is not directly responsible for the smoking-car and the smoking-concert (among whose habitues now are both men and women), the smoke-talk with choking atmosphere (so different from the councils of the aborigines), the harmful cigarette, not to be compared with its Indian prototype-cigarette pictures, etc. Details of the Indian uses of tobacco and of the spread of the habit of smoking may be read in J. D. McGuire's Pipes and Smoking Customs of the American Aborigines (1897). The Indians of the Northwest, especially, had the custom of using mixtures of the barks and leaves of various plants, with or without the addition of tobacco, for purposes of smoking. Mr. McGuire informs us that Cornus sericea and C. stolonifera "grow over the greater part of North America and are used for smoking nearly as extensively as Nicotiana." Here belong the sagakhomi, kinnikinnick, etc., of the early settlers, métis, etc., of this region, borrowed from the Indian population, and used in lieu of tobacco proper. Of course, none of such plants were ever cultivated by the Indians, the operation being one of gleaning" only. 66 The Indians of the arid regions of the Southwest (the Gila country of Arizona especially) used irrigation canals, etc., to a considerable extent for the purposes of agriculture and for providing the Pueblos with fresh water. The white settlers in the same area have taken advantage of the old Indian works to perfect their own irrigation schemes. According to Professor F. W. Hodge* "Several of the old canal beds have been utilized for miles by modern ditch builders; in one instance a saving of $20,000 to $25,000 was effected at the Mormon settlement of Mesa, Maricopa County, Arizona, by employing an ancient acequia that traversed a *Handbook of American Indians, pt. i., p. 621. FOODS. volcanic knoll for three miles, and which, at one point, was excavated to a depth of twenty to twenty-five feet in the rock for several hundred feet." The use of fish as fertilizer or manure was known to many Indian peoples of the Atlantic coast region, the Algonkian tribes of New England and Virginia in particular, and this device was one of the first things the early settlers learned from the natives. In his History of Plimouth Plantation (1621), Governor Bradford tells how, in April, 1621, "They (as many as were able) began to plant their corne, in which service Squanto (an Indian) stood them in great stead, showing ye manner how to set it and after how to dress and tend it. And he tould them, excepte they got fish and set with it (in these old grounds) it would come to nothing; and he showed them yet in ye midle of Aprill, they should have store enough come up ye brooke by which they begane to builde, and taught them how to take it." George Mourt (1622) and Edward Johnson (1652) add their testimony; while for Virginia we have, among others, Thomas Morton, in his New England's Canaan (1652), who says concerning the way in which the inhabitants of that colony did their grounds with fish: "You may see in one township a hundred acres together set with these fish (i. e. shads and allizes '), every acre taking 1,000 of them, & an acre thus dressed will produce and yield so mush corn as 3 acres without fish." เ 75 He states that it was in use "onely for the Indian maize (which must be set by hands), not for English grain." The Indians as far north as Canada seem to have used fish-manure, and in addition, several tribes both Algonkian and Iroquoian - used shells as fertilizer. These facts should be remembered to-day, when the refuse of the pogy-factories in Maine and the great shell-heaps of Louisiana are alike made over into "fertilizer " and "phosphate " for agricultural purposes. In all sections of the country also the materials of Indian refuse heaps and shell-mounds are ground up for road-making, etc. The burning over the fields, as a preparation for planting, is another device the whites have picked up from the Indians. Foods. When two races come into more or less massive and continuous contact, and the one fated to be dispossessed has already developed abundant sources of food-supply of a varied and satisfying character, large and important transfers of such materials for survival to the dominant race inevitably take place. In both North and South America this has occurred on a grand scale, and the foodproducts borrowed from the Indians since the Columbian discovery have, in some cases, become the common property of civilized and uncivilized peoples throughout the Old World. In addressing the German Geographical Congress at Stuttgart, in 1893, just after the four-hundredth anniversary of the landing of Columbus, Dr. Rein said: "The influence of the New World upon the material conditions of the Old World has been very varied. For most inhabitants of Europe, and even for the Maoris in far-off New Zealand, potatoes have become an every-day food. Indian corn is even more widespread, and tobacco has conquered the whole earth." The tale is long, indeed, if one were to catalogue all the food-stuffs which the world owes, directly or indirectly, to the American Indian in all the long stretch of the continent from Alaska to Patagonia. Here, however, we can take notice only of some things that were in use among the aborigines of what is now the United States and Canada, and from them passed over to the European colonists and their descendants, kinsmen over-sea, subject-races, etc. Even that list is longer than many dream of. One great reason why the European race was able to survive in North America was because the waters abounded in fish and the forests in game which a naturally hospitable people like the Indians placed at the disposal of the newcomers, when the latter were at their wits' end to obtain them otherwise. Many of the most distinguished men and women the United States has ever produced owe their existence to the fact that their ancestral families were saved from death from starvation by the hospitality of the neighboring Indians. The late Dr. D. G. Brinton, the famous anthropologist, delighted to tell how one of the pioneer settlers of Pennsylvania, bearing his name and being one of his direct ancestors, was in this manner saved with his whole family. Time and again, the little struggling colonies and settlements of white men from Labrador to Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, had the products of Indian industry to thank for their rescue from destruction by famine and disease. In times of scarcity of food, the Europeans subsisted on what they could obtain from the natives in the way of corn and other things which they had stored up above or below ground. The chronicler Hakluyt (1609) (1609) says of the Indians of Apalache in Florida, that when the European adventurers reached their town they found there "great store of maiz, French beans and pompions, which is their food, and that wherewith the Christians sustained themselves." And further north the Christians were not above "sustaining themselves" sometimes by plundering the Indian " barns," as we read in the early colonial records of New England and elsewhere-regular expeditions being sent out on occasion for that purpose. The settlers thus survived sometimes through the hospitality of the natives and sometimes again by virtue of deliberate parasitism. In the West, during the period of slow advance of the white population, similar incidents were of frequent occurrence, and certain exploring ex |