fierce warriors has caused the general public to neglect them in other respects. Through the researches of Horatio Hale and others it has been shown that the Cherokee of the Carolinas (so well investigated by Mooney) belong to the Iroquoian stock, together with several minor tribes in the south Atlantic region. This stock has produced a number of eminent men: Hiawatha, Red Jacket, Joseph Brant, and Dr. Oronhyatekha, the head of the Independent Order of Foresters, J. N. B. Hewitt, of the Bureau of American Ethnology at Ethnology at Washington, etc. Sequoyah, the halfblood Cherokee, who invented the alphabet now in use by his people, deserves mention here likewise. As compared with the prominent part played by them in the French-English and colonial wars, and in the Revolutionary War, War of 1812, etc., the Iroquoian people left little impression upon the culture and the speech of the English in America. In both New York and Ontario, where considerable numbers of Iroquois still live, with no immediate danger of dying out, but particularly in the latter province on the Grand River Reserve, the pagan and Christianized Iroquois have existed side by side in the same community for so long a time as to make this phenomenon, the details of which have been pointed out by David Boyle, of great value to sociologists. The Muskhogean stock (Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, Seminoles, etc.) as their subsequent career in the

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"Civilized Nations" of the Indian Territory with the Cherokee has shown, are among the most gifted intellectually of the aborigines of America. Gatschet notes as characteristic of this stock: Their colorsymbolism for peace and war, their totemic system, the use of the "black drink," the doctrine of the "Master of Life," sun-worship, mound-building (some regard this stock as having been one of the so-called "MoundBuilders "), the ceremony of the busk, etc. This stock has had many intertribal wars, and the Creeks and particularly the Seminoles of Florida are famous for their contests with the whites.

The Siouan stock (Crows, Mandans, Assiniboins, Hidatsa, Sioux, Winnebagos, Omaha, Tutelos, Catawbas, Biloxi, etc.) are noteworthy by reason of their migration from the Atlantic slope in the region of the Carolinas to the trans-Mississippian and Missouri country, where their culture was conditioned by the presence of the buffalo and the adoption (from the whites) of the horse. Their wars with the surrounding tribes, particularly the Algonkian, and their subsequent numerous collisions with the whites (Minnesota massacre of 1862, the troubles in which Sitting Bull figured, etc.), are matter of history. The use of buffalo-skins made it possible for some of the Sioux tribes to develop pictography to a high degree. The researches of J. Owen Dorsey and Miss Alice

Fletcher have shown the Omaha in particular to be gifted with a religiosocial consciousness of a marked character, reflected in their namegiving and the ceremonies associated with the passage from childhood to manhood, in which individuality is much emphasized. That their capacity for producing men of ability is not confined to those of the primitive type (Sitting Bull) is indicated by the way in which individual members of this stock (Dr. Eastman, La Flesche, the collaborator of Dorsey, etc.) have responded to the stimuli of modern culture.

The Dakotan federation is well remembered by the names of the twin States of the Northwest; Minnesota, Nebraska, etc., are terms of Siouan origin; while the minor placenomenclature of the northwestern States contains a multitude of names from the same source.

The Shahaptian stock is noteworthy on account of the Nez Percés and the famous chief Joseph, one of the most remarkable Indians of any age, whose "retreat" in 1877 has been compared to the celebrated march of the Ten Thousand of old.

The "Pueblos " Indians, as they are called from their village life, have risen in New Mexico and Arizona above the stage of savagery into a state of semi-civilization, representing the triumph of man over the adverse conditions of the desert and the inroads of fierce enemies of the lowest culture. Their relations to the socalled "Cliff-Dwellers" has been the

subject of some ethnological speculation. The diversity of culture among the Pueblos is not as great as that of speech. Besides the Moqui or Hopi, who belong to the Shoshonian stock, there are found in the Pueblos group three other distinct linguistic stocks,

Keresan, Tañoan and Zuñian. The Pueblos culture has apparently been developed independently in several local centres, and the studies of Bandelier, Hodge, Fewkes, Cushing, etc., have thrown much light on the origins and interrelations of stages of culture largely the reflex of environment.

The Shoshonean or Uto-Aztecan stock offers the most wonderful contrasts in its members of any Amerindian stock. Linguistic and other evidence appears to justify the conclusion that not only certain peoples of the Sonoran country (Cahitas, Coras, Tepehuanas, etc.), some of whom achieved a sort of half civilization in contact with their more cultured neighbors, but the Bannacks, Shoshones; and Utes (even (even the wretched "Root-diggers") are kith and kin with the ancient Aztecs upon whose civilization Cortés intruded, and the tribes of Nahuatl lineage who carried that culture more or less from central Mexico to beyond Lake Nicaragua. The change from the low type represented by the Utes to the high type of the old Mexicans may have been due in large measure to environment. Intermediate stages are represented by some of the

Sonoran tribes. The Moqui group of the Pueblos Indians belong also to the Shoshonean stock.

The Mayan stock (Cakchiquels, Huastecs, Tzotzils, Kekchis, Quiché, Tzendals, Mayas, etc.), creators of the civilization destroyed by the Spaniards in Central America, left, besides graven monuments in large numbers, other evidences of their having invented a system of "writing," which is the nearest approach by any of the aboriginal peoples of America to a phonetic method of record of record the solution of the Mayan hieroglyphics is perhaps the question of American archæology. Their calendar-system, nagualism in religion, and the important rôle of woman in religious and social functions, deserve especial notice. The explorations of the Peabody Museum (Cambridge) have resulted in many new discoveries.

Central and South American Stocks.

There is There is that the

The Chibchan stock, whose culture varied from that of the savage Aroacos of the mountains of Sta Marta to the civilization of the country about Bogota, represents a rise from barbarism independent of that to the south in Peru, etc. some reason to believe "gold-culture" of the Chiriqui country and allied remains in the same region to the borders of Nicaragua may be due to the Chibchan stockthe Talamanca, Guaymi, and a few other dialects of Costa Rica, etc., show affinities with Chibchan tongues.

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Their use and working of gold were of a high order, but neither in architecture nor in pictography could they compare with the Peruvians, the Mexicans, and the Mayas. They had a characteristic hero-legend of Bochica, and a tale of the great flood. The shrine of Lake Guatavita was a famous religious resort. Some of the famous "El Dorados were in their territory. The Quechuan stock, which is best known through the civilization of the Incas, superimposed upon an older, widespread culture, represents but one phase of higher human activity in the Peruvian area. The extension of Quechuan language especially von Tschudi and Brinton agree in attributing not to the military achievements of this people, which antedated the coming of the Spaniards by only a few centuries, but to intellectual and culture influences millenniums old. The marks of their language can be traced from near the equator on the north to the Pampean tribes on the south. Common in the Peruvian area seems to have been a highly developed agriculture (stimulated, as in the southwestern United States, by the necessity for irrigation and artificial treatment of the soil)

Inca form of government was never probably so far removed from the system common to most of the American stocks as some writers have believed. The Incasic conquest has caused the Peruvians to be styled the "Romans of America," but the analogy is misleading. misleading. Beyond the use of picture-writing and the employment of the quipu (knotted colored strings) for purposes of record, the Peruvians had not advanced, and the semi-phonetic system, like that of the Mayas, was not developed by them. Ancestor-worship

Ancestor-worship and sunworship (state religion) were professed by the Peruvians, but the most far-sighted of their thinkers touched almost upon monotheism. The heroThe herogod of the Peruvians was the seaborn Viracocha, about whom centred a rich and imaginative mythology. The mixture of races in the production of ancient Peruvian culture is indicated by the diversity of cranial type among the skulls from the old burial grounds and mummy-caves. North of the Quechuas, on the coast about Trujillo, were the YuncaChimus, etc., whose civilization is represented by the ruins of Gran Chimu and other remains in the valley of Trujillo, which preceded the period of Inca domination. Southeast of the Quechuan culture was that of the Aymaras on the Andean table-lands. To them are usually assigned the ruins of Tiahuanaco, near Lake Titicaca, which in their completeness were probably the most imposing

structures raised by the hand of aboriginal man in America-in architecture they differ in several notable ways from the buildings of Inca origin. Inca origin. Dr. Uhle has very recently sought to show the "succession of cultures" at Pachacamac, Trujillo, and their relations to that of Tiahuanaco.

In the northern part of the Argentine Republic (Province of Jujuy, etc.) the architectural and archæological remains brought to light by recent investigators (Ambrosetti in particular) indicate the presence of a "civilization "- village life in a desert environment, offering striking analogies to the culture of the Pueblos Indians of Arizona and New Mexico. This Calchaqui culture is evidently much more than the mere reflex of Quechuan-Aymaran conquest which it was formerly considered to be. Its origin and growth, however, remain to be clearly demonstrated.

The Araucanian stock, whose language has been studied by Lenz, are famous for their long resistance to the Spanish arms (the story of the "conquest" has been written in the last few years by Guevara), part of which gave rise to De Ercilla's epic of La Araucana. To the Araucanian stock belong tribes on both sides of the Chilean Andes and a number of the nomadic peoples of the Pampas, where they seem to be intruders rather than aborigines. Chilean Spanish has borrowed many expressive terms from Araucanian.

The Patagonians, Tzonek, or Tehuelche, famous since the time of Pigafetta as "giants (many of them exceed six feet and some are said to reach seven). To them belongs the "Setebos" of Shakespeare's Tempest.

The Tapuyan stock of Brazil is looked upon by some authorities as the oldest people of the continent some would affiliate with them the Fuegians, in this respect- representing a race once inhabiting a great part of South America. The man of the caves of Lagoa Santa and the man of the remarkable sambaquis or shellheaps of the Brazilian coast are by many authorities considered to have related to the Tapuyans. Characteristic modern Tapuyans are the Botocudos, so called from the labret they wear in the lower lip. According to Ehrenreich, some of these ancient men of Brazil show affinities with prehistoric man of eastern Europe.

The Tupian stock (or Tupi-Guaranis, as they are also called), whose language was much used by the missionaries for general intercourse with the natives and is the basis of the ligoa geral, or "common language " of the region of the Amazons, were perhaps the highest in culture of the Brazilian tribes, having the elements of agriculture, village life, pottery (well developed and rather artistic), urn-burial, etc., but nothing beyond the Stone Age. Intermixture with both whites and negroes has taken place in the Tupi area, and the rich

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and imaginative tales of animals, etc., belonging to Tupi mythology have thus been given a wider extension, while negro and white influences have made themselves felt, both on the language and the literature of these people. According to Hartt, the Tupi language has influenced the Portuguese of Brazil quite as much as has the latter the former.

The Cariban stock were long famous for their cannibalism (the word cannibal is a corruption of one of their ethnic names), real and attributive, and their skill in making and using canoes. The shaman, or medicine-man, had great power among them, and they practised the curious and remarkable custom of the couvade. Rock-inscriptions and piledwellings are found in their territory. Some of them have been reduced to sad straits by the contact of the whites, but some of the Venezuelan tribes of this stock are still good, typical representatives of the American Indian.

The Arawakan stock, through its representatives (the Bahamian Lucayans, the natives of Haiti, Porto Rico, Cuba, etc.), was the first of the aboriginal peoples of the New World (exclusive of Greenland and Labrador) to come into contact with the white race, and likewise the first to come under its devastating influence. Many of the tribes of this stock were of a mild and gentle disposition, good agriculturalists, pottery-makers, workers in stone, wood and gold, and