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largely overlaid with eruptive rocks, great lava formations testifying to the volcanic origin of the Rocky Mountains. Great confusion of the different formations prevails in this region. There are layers belonging to formations ranging from the Archean and Cambrian epochs to those of the chalk and tertiary periods. These are found in Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, Idaho, Oregon and Washington. The geysers of Yellowstone Park are a survival of the times of great volcanic energy. The whole region is one of great uplift, and the Colorado river is regarded as an evidence of slow elevation continued for uncounted centuries, the river having cut its way deeper and deeper into the rocky crust as the continental plateau was elevated.

Notwithstanding its immense elevation, the enormous tableland of the Rocky Mountains has been subject to great denudation by glacial action. It has been calculated that a thickness of 5,000 feet has been removed over an area of 200,000 square miles.

The Coast Range, or Cascade Mountains, that extend from California to Washington, are characterized chiefly by eozoic and cretaceous formations.

In the tertiary epoch the coastal plain from New Jersey through all the Atlantic States southward to Florida, comprising a belt 200 miles in width, forming also the larger part of Florida and extending along the Gulf States west of the Mississippi, and

thence beyond the alluvial deposits of that river, and covering a belt of equal width through Louisiana and Texas to Mexico, is an accumulation of tertiary and cretaceous beds, mixed with sands, gravels, clays and marls. At this time the Mississippi discharged itself into the sea where it is now joined by the Ohio.

Later still, during the quaternary period, the alluvial fringe of shore along the Atlantic coast, the Everglades of Florida and the Gulf coast from the south of Florida to Mexico, including the low lying valley of the Mississippi as far north as the confluence of the Ohio, were deposited. The Mojave desert, and the valleys of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin in California, were created during this period, as well as a large deposit of glacial moraines lying west of Lake Superior.

Mineralogy.

The discovery of placer gold in California was the beginning of gold mining in the United States. Placer mines are the detrital deposits of gold-bearing veins washed down by rivers. The gold is worn smooth, and, finding its way through the gravel on account of its greater specific gravity, is accumulated between the lowest layer of sand and bed rock. The gold is recovered by being washed in sluices. Hydraulic mining, which originated in California in 1852, consists in tearing down deposits of goldbearing gravel by means of water is

MINERALOGY.

suing from a pipe under great pressure. In 1850 the output of gold in California was $50,000,000. Gold mining, where the gold exists in goldbearing veins of quartz or other rocks, requires special machinery for extraction. The ore has to be mined, crushed by rock breakers, reduced to a fine powder in a stamp mill, and then subjected to the mercury or cyanide process to obtain the gold.

In the production of gold Colorado and California take the lead with an average production of $20,000,000 each; Alaska, $16,000,000; Nevada, $12,000,000; South Dakota, $7,000,000; Arizona, $4,000,000. The total annual product for all the States in 1913 was $88,884,400.

In the production of silver Colorado's average annual output is over $5,000,000; Montana, $7,500,000; Utah, $7,000,000; Nevada, $9,000,000; Idaho, $5,000,000. The total average annual output is $40,000,000.

In copper the United States controls the markets of the world. The richest mines are the Calumet and

Hecla of Michigan, the Copper Queen and United Verde, the Anaconda of Montana and the mines of Arizona, California and Utah. The average annual production is about $175,000,000.

The area of the coal fields of the United States, including those of Alaska, is 450,839 square miles. Anthracite coal is confined almost entirely to the middle eastern portion of Pennsylvania, which produces about

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75,000,000 tons per annum. It is estimated that the supply will last another hundred years at the present rate of Bituminous coal is consumption.

mined in Pennsylvania, in Illinois, Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland, and a half dozen other States, the annual output being 400,000,000 tons. There is enough bituminous coal to last several hundred years to come.

Iron follows coal in importance. The average output of iron in the United States is as follows:

Red hematite, mostly Lake Superior ore, containing 70 per cent. iron, 50,000,000 tons.

Brown hematite, mostly mined in Virginia, containing 59 per cent. iron, 1,500,000 tons.

Magnetite of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, containing 72 per cent. iron, 2,250,000 tons.

Carbonate, 48 per cent. iron, 30,000

tons.

In the Mesaba Range in Minnesota, the ore is so near the surface that it can be mined by steam shovels. The

development of this region has been greatly stimulated by improved transportation facilities on the Great Lakes.

Lead is largely produced from the silver mines, and in the production of this metal the United States takes the first place. Idaho, Colorado, Utah and the mines of the Mississippi valley produce the bulk of the lead mined, the average annual production being about $35,000,000.

The United States produces half of the world's cutput of aluminum, the annual value being $14,000,000.

The production of zinc is limited. chiefly to the lead mining region of the Mississippi valley, the average annual production being 300,000 tons.

Salt is produced in Michigan, New York, Kansas, Ohio, California, Louisiana and Utah. The average annual output is valued at $9,000,000. The average annual value of phosphate rock mined is $11,000,000.

The United States is first in the production of petroleum oil. The average annual production is 225,000,000 barrels.

The precious stones found in the United States are the sapphire deposits of Montana, the turquoise deposits of Alabama, Arizona, Cali

fornia and New Mexico, the tourmaline deposits of Connecticut and Maine, and the garnets of North Carolina, Connecticut, Arizona and New Mexico. Beryls, agates and quartz crystals are also found in Arizona and New Mexico.

In general mining products, asphaltum, gilsonite, peat, slate, graphite, borax, talc, asbestos, mica, soap stones and manganese ore are found in abundance. Antimony, tin, nickel, sulphur, gems and precious stones in general are imported.

The coast ranges of Alaska and the archipelagoes are of granite. The

peninsula of Alaska on the Aleutian chain of islands, and the hills bordering Bering Sea are mainly volcanic. Some volcanoes are even at present subject to eruption. A slow upheaval of Alaska and the Bering Sea basin. is observable. On the other hand there is evidence of great glaciation. The mountain ranges of the southeastern interior are of granite overlayed with quartzites, schists, and other metamorphic rocks that have been violently disturbed by eruptive overflows. They form part of the mineral-bearing ranges of the Rocky Mountains.

Gold mining may be regarded as a special industry of Alaska. Placers were first discovered on Douglas Island, where gold is mined continuously. The great Klondike gold dis

trict on the Canadian border was discovered in 1885, and awakened the whole world to the riches of Alaska. Since then rich placers have been discovered at Forty Mile Creek, Birch Creek, Nome and Cape York on Bering Sea, Fairbanks, Circle City, Tanana River Valley, etc. Silver ore, coal, copper, tin, platinum and petroleum have been discovered.

The Philippine Islands are of volcanic origin. There are twelve active volcanos

volcanos in the group. Limestone occurs in Luzon, and some of the islands have a covering of coral and limestone. Gold exists in several islands, also coal, iron and copper.

THE AMERICAN INDIANS, THEIR ORIGIN, HABITATS, PHYSICAL AND RACIAL CHARACTERISTICS, ETC.*

Language and culture - Linguistic stocks - North American stocks- - Central and South American stocks Original habitats — Language and writing — Religion — Amusements — Arts and inventions — Position of Government-Trade and commerce Education Physical characteristics - Authorities.

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Columbus, when he discovered discovered America, believed he had reached a part of Asia, or of India, and in a letter of February, 1493, wrote of "the Indians [in Spanish, Indios] I have with me." Thus the aborigines. of the New World came to be called "Indians " (French Indiens, German Indianer, etc.), or, to avoid confusion with the natives of India, "American Indians," for which rather cumbrous term the word "Amerinds,' susceptible of many modifications by means of prefix and suffix, and easily adaptable to the exigencies of modern European and other civilized languages, has been suggested by an eminent American lexicographer and is used more or less by a number of anthropologists and other writers. The word "American," originally applied to the Indians, is still somewhat in use, and Dr. D. G. Brinton styled his comprehensive sketch published in 1891, The American Race; but its employment to designate the white population of the continent seems to bar its ethnological application to the aborigines

* By Alexander F. Chamberlain, Assistant Professor of Anthropology, Clark University.

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without some qualifying term. By some writers the Indians are called the "Red Race," and, more popularly, "Redskins " (in French PeauxRouges, in German Rothäute), or Redmen," terms of no exact somatic significance. A few American, and many European, ethnologists continue to separate the peoples who created the civilizations of Mexico, Central America, Peru, etc., from the Indians, while others exclude the Eskimo, and others, again, the "Mound-Builders." But somatic, cultural, and linguistic evidence justifies the conclusions of Powell and Brinton in using the term "American Indians" to include not only the aborigines now existing, or known to have existed since the discovery, but also all the pre-Columbian peoples of America concerning whom we have little data little data the most divergent are no more than sub-varieties of American man. This unity is the great ethnic phenomenon of American aboriginal history. The study of Indian languages, archæological remains, arts, and industries, games, social and religious institutions, mythology and folk-lore indicates a general [29]

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psychic unity, while the somatic diversities do not transcend those observable in the other great races of mankind. Whether one investigates, as McGee has so admirably done, the Seri of the Gulf of California, who represent about the lowest type of savage culture on the North American continent, or the Mayas of Yucatan, whose approach to a phonetic system of writing touches the highwater mark of Amerindian achievement, one receives the same impression: that it is a question not of very recent civilized or semi-barbaric intruders from Asia or from Europe, but of a race (whatever their remoter origins may be) who have dwelt for ages in an American environment, which has shaped them into the peoples met with by the whites at the time of the Columbian discovery. The limited effect of the "discovery" of the Norsemen may be held to discount

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"discoveries" by Europeans before them; while, on the other hand, the American-Asiatic contact revealed by the investigations of the Jesup North Pacific expedition is as much American as Asiatic, and the Bering Sea" culture is a local phenomenon no more fundamentally indigenous to the Old World than to the New. The arguments in favor of a trans-Pacific Malayo-Polynesian influence upon primitive America are no stronger than those that can be adduced to support the contrary opinion. The culture of the "MoundBuilders" does not in any way tran

scend the possibilities of what the American Indian was and is yet capable of, nor is it necessary to assume the presence of foreign culture-elements to explain the civilizations of Mexico, Yucatan, Colombia, and Peru. Since very primitive times America America has been essentially the “ethnic island" of Brinton, Keane, and other investigators. The impress of America has been upon the aborigines so long that physically, socially, linguistically they have been "Americanized " in so marked a fashion that their right to be considered one of the "races" of mankind is not to be dismissed without cause. To group them merely as a branch of the Mongolian, or, again, of the Malay " race," is to obscure many points of great importance in the prehistory of America or to ignore them altogether. The American Indian is in too many respects a modified (and anciently so) variety of mankind to be thought of as expressing in any serious degree the type of the Mongolian or the Malay.

Language and Culture.

The ethnic isolation of the American race has already been noticed. The apparent independence of the culture-centres of North and South America is another interesting fact. With the exception of a few possible traces of the presence of tribes of Arawak lineage in ancient Florida and the spread of art-motifs of the Caribbean type over a portion of the

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