aristocracy. He restored to the kingdom its strength and its honor; but, in 1792, he fell a victim to a conspiracy. His son, Gustavus IV (q. v.), ascended the throne under the guardianship of his uncle, but lost it in 1809. His uncle, who assumed the government under the title of Charles XIII (q. v.), gave the kingdom a new constitution, and chose, for his successor, prince Christian Augustus of SleswicHolstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, who adopted the name of Charles Augustus. He concluded the war with Russia by the peace of Friedrichshamm, in 1809, by which he ceded all Finnland, and, in 1810, renewed the previous relations of the kingdom with France. The crown-prince, however, died suddenly; and the diet of Oerebro chose, for his successor, the French marshal Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, who was adopted by the king under the name of Charles John. (See Charles XIV.) Sweden now declared war against Great Britain; but the pressure of the war, and the increasing encroachments of France, produced a change of policy (1812), and she joined the allies against Napoleon. (See Charles XIV, and Russian-German War.) By the peace with Denmark, concluded at Kiel (Jan. 14, 1814), Sweden received Norway as an independent, free, indivisible and inalienable kingdom, in return for her possessions in Pomerania and the island of Rügen.

Since the union of Norway and Sweden, concluded by the storthing at Christiania, Oct. 18, 1814 (see Norway), this double kingdom has combined, under one king and two very different constitutions, two proud and free-spirited nations, each jealous of its peculiar privileges. The political condition of Sweden and Norway forms a permanent partition between them: there, a jealous aristocracy is perpetually watching over its ancient privileges; here, the democracy struggles to defend its new-born rights. In both kingdoms, the peasantry and the citizens hold a higher rank than in most European states. In Norway, there is no hereditary nobility, and the veto of the king is only conditional. These circumstances seem to separate the Scandinavian peninsula from the European system of politics, with which, however, it is closely connected. To the discrepancy of domestic and foreign relations is added an incessant struggle with the climate and soil, with obstructions in trade, depreciated paper money, and an oppressive public debt. Charles XIV is a sovereign suited to the

country and the age. Looking steadily to the future, he meets present difficulties with firmness and wisdom. He possesses the affections of the majority of the nation, and especially of the army; and has imbued his successor with his own principles. The crown-prince, Oscar, lives and thinks as a Swede. He met with a distinguished reception, at Verona, at the time of the congress, Oct. 26, 1822, where the visits of the two emperors seem to confirm the opinion that his succession to the throne was guarantied by Russia. Soon afterwards, the marriage of the prince with Josephine Maximiliana, daughter of Eugene Beauharnais, duke of Leuchtenberg (whose wife was Augusta Amelia, princess of Bavaria), took place at Stockholm, June 19, 1823. The first fruit of this marriage, Charles, born May 3, 1826, is styled duke of Schonen; the second, Francis, born July 9, 1827, duke of Upland; the third, born 1829, duke of Gothland. Some intrigues and conspiracies for the restoration of the family of Wasa have occurred in Sweden; but the estates took this opportunity (1823) to give the king and the crown-prince the strongest assurances of fidelity. The king and Swedish estates, in order to interrupt all communication with the exiled family, determined to transfer to it all its property remaining in the kingdom, and to extinguish its pension by the payment of a certain sum mutually agreed upon by the two parties, which was done in 1824. The personal character and constitutional principles of the king have secured him the love and fidelity of his subjects. He often visits the remote provinces of his two kingdoms, relieving distress wherever he finds it, usually from his private purse, and takes no important measures without being assured of the concurrence of the estates, which meet every six years, and of the majority of the nation.

It has been the object of the government in Sweden to give unity to the administration; and the minister at the head of each department is responsible for its measures. The constitutional committee of every diet has the right to examine the journals of the cabinet, to discover any violation of the constitution. Since 1821, the judicial power has been separated from the executive. The administration of justice has been essentially improved. The new Swedish constitution of June 7, 1809, is given in the second volume of Constitutions of the European States (in German, Leipsic, 1817). To separate the roy

son viceroy of Norway, and thus made him commander-in-chief of the land and sea forces. The presence of this prince was, perhaps, designed to countenance the propositions for changes in thirteen sections in the constitution, namely, the introduction of the absolute veto; the creation of a Norwegian nobility; the appointment of the president of the storthing by the king, &c. But these and other proposals were unanimously rejected by the storthing, May 22. (See the Norwegian Constitution, in the 2d volume of the European Constitutions.) When the crownprince prorogued the storthing, Aug. 9, 1824, he expressed a hope that the wishes of the government would meet with more favor in a future session; but, in the session of 1827, the proposition for an absolute veto was unanimously rejected. The crownprince was then recalled to Stockholm, and his appointment as viceroy of Norway was revoked. The king and queen visited Christiania in September, 1825; and their presence in that city in the year 1827, at the fifth regular storthing, and again in 1828, gave the monarch an opportunity to witness anew the love and faith of his Norwegian subjects. But their attachment to their constitution was as warmly displayed on the anniversary of the establishment of the Norwegian constitution, May 17, 1827. (See Norway.)

In 1822, the free navigation of the Black sea by Swedish and Norwegian ships was obtained from the Porte, and a treaty was concluded with Great Britain, in 1824, for the suppression of the slavetrade. In 1828, a treaty of commerce and navigation between Sweden and the U. States placed the vessels of the contracting powers on the footing of national vessels in the ports of the respective nations. -See Geijer's History of Sweden (in Swedish, 1826); Ekendahl's History of the Swedes (in German, 1827 seq.).

We have already given an account of the present condition of Norway in a separate article. Sweden is a hereditary monarchy, limited by estates. They are divided into four ranks, the nobility, clergy, citizens and peasantry. The nobility are subdivided into three classes, the lords, including counts and barons, the knights, or those whose ancestors have held the place of royal counsellors, and the simple noblemen. The clergy is represented by the bishop of each diocese, and the citizens and peasants, the latter comprising only the free peasants of the crown, by deputies. The sovereign dis

poses of the higher civil and military offices, from which foreigners are excluded by law. Without the consent of the states, the king cannot enact new laws or abolish old ones. The constitution requires the king to assemble the states once in five years. The legislative power in Norway is lodged in the storthing, which meets every three years. A viceroy, or governor-general, resides at Christiania. The revenue and troops of the two kingdoms are kept distinct. The fortifications of Norway are only in part occupied by Sweden. For the levying of taxes, the consent of the states is necessary, and all the troops and officers are required to take the oath of allegiance to them, as well as to the king. Since 1798, the sovereign has had the right to make war and peace, to regulate the judiciary, and to conduct the general administration without restraint. The succession to the throne is hereditary in the male line according to the law of primogeniture. On the extinction of the male line, the estates have full power to elect a king. The sovereign is of full age in Norway at the completion of his eighteenth year, and in Sweden at the close of his twentieth. Before his coronation, the king is required to take the inaugural oath, and to subscribe an engagement to maintain inviolate the Evangelical Lutheran religion. A Swede who abandons the Lutheran religion loses his civil rights. The kingdom contains one archbishop, thirteen bishops, and 192 provosts. The principal administrative bodies in Sweden are, 1. the council of state, the highest deliberative body, consisting of nine members; 2. the committee on the general affairs of the kingdom, consisting of eight members; 3. the royal chancery, which is under the king's immediate direction, and superintends the general affairs of state, foreign and domestic. Connected with it is the royal cabinet for foreign correspondence, the bureau of the president of the chancery and the archives of the kingdom. The finances are managed by a board of finance. The war and navy boards have the control over those departments, under the presidency of a general and the high admiral. The highest tribunal of justice is the supreme court, the president of which, in the king's absence, is chief magistrate of the kingdom. The decisions of this court are regulated by the code of 1731, as revised in 1778. The ecclesiastical affairs are conducted by the consistory, the president of which is the first court preacher. The medical insti

tutions are directed by the collegium medicum. All the high offices in the Swedish army have hitherto been venal. The present government has made great exertions to abolish this abuse, so that the road to promotion is now open alike to rich and poor. In Sweden, there are five orders of knighthood: 1. the order of Seraphim, founded, according to tradition, by king Magnus. History shows that it existed in 1336. It was renewed by king Frederic I, April 17, 1748. Its motto is I. H. S. 2. The order of the Sword, according to tradition, was instituted by king Gustavus I, and was renewed, April 12, 1748, by king Frederic I. 3. The order of the North Star is traced by some to the age of Odin. King Frederic I renewed it April 17, 1748. The motto is Nescit occasum. 4. The order of Wasa, or Vasa, founded May 26, 1772. 5. The order of Charles XIII, instituted by the king, May 27, 1811, is bestowed only upon freemasons of the higher degrees. Agriculture and manufactures have flourished since the accession of the present king. In Sweden, there are about 900 manufactories of cloth, silk, cotton, woollen, linen, leather, sugar, tobacco, glass, mirrors, watches, porcelain, paper, marble, porphyry, and of metals, in which the iron works hold the most important place, yielding annually 72,000 tons of bar iron, and 10,000 tons of manufactured iron. According to the tabular views of Sweden, the valne of its annual productions is estimated at 88,000,000 Swedish bank dollars, including wooden ware to the value of half a million; manufactures, more than 12,000,000; trade and navigation, about 14,500,000 dollars. The iron works of Norway (the most important are at Laurvig and at Moss) yield 8000 tons of iron per annum. Many vessels are built, both in Sweden and Norway, for foreign countries, and large quantities of wood are worked up into boards (especially on the river Drammen), laths, joists, masts, &c. The situation is favorable to trade, which is carried on with the nations bordering on the Baltic, Great Britain, Holland, France, in the Mediterranean sea, and with the U. States. A Swedish East India company trades to China. Articles of export are wood, boards, ship timber, joists, tar, pitch, potash, iron, steel, copper, herrings, whaleoil, peltry, &c. The imports consist mostly of grain, wine, resins, oil, salt, wool, flax, hemp and groceries. In 1818, the use of coffee was prohibited. The government of Sweden appropriates 4,000,000 Swedish bank dollars annually to pur

chase corn; but no such provision is made in Norway, whence the scarcity of corn is more sensibly felt, and, at the same time, the high duties render the importation of grain very difficult. In 1818, Sweden had about 1100 trading vessels, with 9200 sailors, and Norway about 800, with 6500 sailors. Half of them can be fitted out in war as privateers. The chief commercial towns in Sweden are Stockholm, Gottenburg, Nordköping, Gefle, Carlscrona, Malmoe, Landscrona, Ystadt, and Udawalla; in Norway, Bergen, Christiania, Drontheim, Christiansand, Stavanger, Drammen, and Fredrickshald. In 1818, four new roads were constructed through Darlecarlia and Helsingland, for the promotion of trade. Two of them lead to Norway. There are likewise several canals; for example, the Trollhätta canal, round the falls of the Gotha-Elf, whose perpendicular descent is estimated at 130 feet; and the Götha canal, joining the Baltic with the German ocean, which was completed in 1827. (See Canals.) The whole distance from Gottenburg to Söderköping, on the Baltic, is 240 miles; of which 186 are occupied by the GöthaElf, the Trollhätta canal, and some lakes. A third canal is that of Södertelje, thirteen miles from Stockholm, by which a new junction of lake Mälar with the Baltic was made in 1819; thus bringing twenty towns in the interior into connexion with the sea, and facilitating the commerce of the capital. Under the reigns of Gustavus Adolphus, Christina, and Charles XI, manufactures of iron, brass, steel, leather, soap, woollen, and silk, first became prosperous; but the wars of Charles XII involved the whole in a general ruin. The manufactures of the Swedes, however, recovered themselves; and they produce all wares (of which the raw materials are not too high in other countries), as far as the want of hands, occasioned by numerous wars, permits. Nevertheless, when we compare the productions and revenue of Sweden with its extent, in which it yields only to Russia, we must pronounce it the poorest country in Europe. Excellent institutions have been established, especially in Sweden, for the instruction of the people. The university founded in 1476, at Upsal, with twenty-four professors, has an extensive library, a botanical garden, a cabinet of coins, and of natural history, an observatory, &c. The university erected at Lund, in 1666, with twenty-three professors, has also a library, a museum, a botanical garden, and an observatory. The two universities, in 1829, contained 2156

students: they are under the direction of eleven bishops and the archbishop, the heads of the clergy: the same protection is shared by eighteen gymnasia. There are common schools in every town of the kingdom. At Carlsberg there is a military academy; at Skara, a veterinary school; at Stockholm, a military academy. In 1739, an academy of sciences was instituted at Stockholm, and, in 1753, the academy of fine arts, which was divided into the Swedish academy and the academy of fine arts, and afterwards reorganized. In Norway, a few years since, the university of Christiania was established, and in 1827 it contained 549 students. It has a library, a botanical garden, and collections of natural history. At the same place there is a military academy and a commercial institute. At Kongsberg, or Conisberg, there is a mining school, and at Drontheim a seminary for young Laplanders. Norway has also five gymnasia, and two seminaries for school-teachers. The village schools are few.—See Brooke's Travels through Sweden, Norway and Finmark (London, 1823, 4to.); Schubert's Travels through Sweden, Norway, Lapland, Finland and Ingermanland, or Ingria (in German, 1823, 3 vols.); Everest's Journey through Norway, &c. (1829).

Swedish Language and Literature. On account of the distance of Sweden from the parts of Europe which were early civilized, Christianity did not gain a firm footing throughout the country until the middle of the twelfth century; and even then civilization followed but slowly, because of the incessant feuds of factions and families, which continued for centuries. It derived little aid from the clergy, who were numerous, but rude, and mainly bent on securing their own power and influence, or from the kings; and the favorable circumstances which, in some other countries, enabled it to develope itself unaided, did not exist in Sweden. If this dark period was enlightened by native sagas, their light is lost to us. The writings of the foreigners Saxo (q. v.) and Snorro (see Sturlason) are the only known sources of information respecting the ancient times of Sweden; and their records are but meagre. The Swedish Chronicle of Erik Olafsen, belonging to the end of the fifteenth century, and written in Latin, follows too closely the rhymed chronicle and fables of John Magnus (1488-1544) to be considered of importance, in regard to the history of this early period. But the historical investigator may learn much from the an

cient provincial and country laws, and from the Kununga oh' Höfdinga Stirilse (The Government of Kings and Chiefs)a picture of the princes of the end of the fourteenth century. The Gothic Union, founded by Geijer in 1811, has awakened an interest for domestic antiquities. The Aurora Union, established by Atterbom in 1808, had prepared the way for it. Jacob Adlerbeth (son of the poet mentioned below) is at present the most active member of the Gothic Union; he is the editor of the Iduna. Afzelius, editor of the Eddas in the origi al, and of the old popular ballads, is also indefatigable.

From the time of the reformation more monuments exist for the history of the Swedish language. The reformation; the translation of the Bible (the Old Testament by Lor. Andreæ, Stockholm, 1526, folio, and the Old and New Testament by Ol. and Lorenz Petri, Upsal, 1541, fol.); the various commercial and political relations of Sweden with Germany; its monarchs of German origin; and even the wars with that country,-caused a leaning towards the German in the Swedish language, which derived some support from the translation of the Bible after Luther's version, and from the other translations of German works which soon followed. In the middle of the seventeenth century, and at later periods, the Swedish literati (for instance, Ihre and Rudbeck) turned their attention towards the remains of ancient northern times; but they wrote in Latin; and the short reign of Christina led to the study and imitation of foreign models, particularly French, which maintained itself in the unquiet period that followed, whilst the language of society was neglected. Louisa Eleonora, sister of Frederic the Great, awakened an interest for polished conversation. She founded an academy of sciences in 1753, which published its transactions in the language of the country, and thus attracted the regard of the scholars of Europe to the Swedish idiom. In this period Olaus Dalin attempted to give to Swedish prose a flexibility and brilliancy ill suited to the northern idioms. This style, borrowed from the French, maintained its place for some time, but could not be of long duration. Gustavus III, though the pupil of Dalin, and expressing himself in French with greater ease than in Swedish, strove to restore the dignity of the Swedish idiom, by the foundation of the Swedish academy in 1786; but the forms which he prescribed to this society, his own example, and the favor bestowed on foreign