to operate themselves. The Romans left them generally to their slaves. In the middle ages, the practice of the healing art was almost exclusively confined to the monks and priests. But, in 1163, the council of Tours prohibited the clergy, who then shared with the Jews the practice of medicine in Christian Europe, from performing any bloody operation. Surgery was banished from the universities. under the pretext that the church detested all bloodshed. Medicine and surgery were now completely separated. This separation was the more easily effected, since the bath-keepers and barbers had undertaken the practice of surgery. At the time of the crusades (from 1100), many diseases were introduced into Europe from the East, particularly into Italy, France and Germany, which caused the frequent use of baths, and the establishment of bathing-houses. In France, the company of barbers was formed, in 1096, when the archbishop William, of Rouen, forbade the wearing of the beard. These bath-keepers and barbers remained for several centuries in possession of the practice of surgery. Meanwhile the mists of the middle ages disappeared. Enlightened by anatomy, surgery assumed a new form; and the works of Berengario de' Carpi, of Fallopius, of Eustachius, &c., were the true source of the knowledge with which Ambrose Paré enriched this science, which had been degraded by its union with the barber's trade. By the discoveries of Cæsar Magatus, Fabricius ab Aquapendente, Wiseman, William Harvey, and Fabricius Hildanus, surgery made new progress. In 1731, the surgical academy was established in France, which soon became celebrated throughout Europe. Maréchal la Peyronie, Lamartinière, &c., were distinguished surgeons. The collection of memoirs and prize writings of the surgical academy contains the history of this flourishing period. There are preserved the labors of J. L. Petit, Garengeot, Lafaye, Lecat, Sabatier, and of several other practitioners. The emulation of all Europe was excited by such an example. At this period flourished, in England, Cheselden, Douglas, the two Monros, Sharp, Alanson, Pott, Smellie, the two Hunters; in Italy, Molinelli, Bertrandi, Moscati; in Holland, Albinus, Deventer, Camper; in Germany and the north of Europe, Heister, Zach, Platner, Stein, Röderer, Bilguer, Acrell, Callisen, Theden, and Richter. Down to the end of the last century, the French surgical academy contained many distinguished

members. Desault (q. v.) became the chief of the new school. Besides the surgical school of Paris, that of Strasburg, and particularly that of Montpellier (where Delpech distinguished himself), which has not always agreed with that of Paris, are celebrated. Now that surgery goes hand in hand with medicine, and is supported by exact anatomical knowledge, it advances with certainty towards perfection. All surgeons, however, are not capable of performing great operations. Some of the necessary qualities may be acquired by practice; but some of them must be received from nature. Sam. Cooper's Dictionary of Surgery, &c. (fourth edition), and Richerand's Origin of Modern Surgery (fifth edition, Paris), are much celebrated.

SURINAM; a territory and colony of South America, in Guiana, belonging to the Netherlands, lying west of French Guiana and east of English Guiana; bounded north by the Atlantic, east by the river Maroni, south by a country of the Indians, and west by the river Courantyn. It is about 150 miles from east to west, and upwards of sixty from north to south; square miles, about 11,000; population, 57,000. The principal rivers are the Surinam, from which the colony takes its name, the Courantyn, Copename, Seramica, and Maroni. The first only is navigable: the others, though long and broad, are so shallow, and so crowded with rocks and small islands, that they are of but little consequence to Europeans; nor are their banks inhabited, except by Indians. In all of them the water rises and falls for more than sixty miles from the mouth, occasioned by the stoppage of the freshes by the tide. In the Maroni is found a pebble called the Maroni diamond. The climate, which was formerly extremely fatal to Europeans, has, within the last twenty years, been much improved, by the increased population of the colony and the better clearing of the ground. The year is divided into two wet and two dry seasons. The highest heat during the hot season is stated at 91°; the common temperature from 75° to 84°. This equal degree of heat is owing to sea-breezes, which regularly set in at ten o'clock, and continue till five P. M., cooling the atmosphere with a constant stream of delightful air. The settlements are chiefly on the Surinam and its branches. The soil is very fertile, producing sugar, coffee, cotton, cocoa, maize, and indigo. The uncultivated parts are covered with immense forests, rocks, and mountains;

some of the latter enriched with a variety of mineral productions. The river Surinam, which gives name to the colony, rises from mountains in the interior, and, after a course of about 150 miles, flows into the Atlantic, lon. 55° 40, W., lat. 6° 25 N. It is about four miles wide at its mouth, and from sixteen to eighteen feet deep, at low water mark, the tide rising and falling above twelve feet. It is navigable for small craft 120 miles. Paramaribo, twelve miles from its mouth, is the capital of the colony. It has a safe and convenient harbor, with an active commerce, and contains a population of 8000 whites, and several thousand free blacks, slaves, &c. The English have several times been in possession of Surinam, but finally restored it, in 1815, to the Dutch government.

SURREY. (See Howard, Henry.) SURROGATE; one who is substituted or appointed in the room of another; as the bishop or chancellor's surrogate (from the Latin surrogare).

SURSOLID, in arithmetic and algebra; the fifth power, or fourth multiplication of any number or quantity, considered as a root. (See Root.)

SURTURBRAND, fossil wood, impregnat ed more or less with bitumen, is found in great abundance in Iceland. A bed of it extends nearly through the whole of the north-western part of the island. It is, in fact, a subterranean forest, impregnated with bituminous sap, and compressed by the weight of the superincumbent rocks. Branches and leaves are pressed together in a compact mass; but the fibres of each may be distinctly traced. The surturbrand is used by the Icelanders chiefly in their smithies, and in small quantities. It is sometimes so little mineralized as to be employed for timber.-Surtur is the name of the northern god of fire. (See Northern Mythology.)

SURVEYING, in a general sense, denotes the art of measuring the angular and linear distances of objects, so as to be able to delineate their several positions on paper, and to ascertain the superficial area, or space between them. It is a branch of applied mathematics, and supposes a good knowledge of arithmetic and geometry. It is of two kinds, land surveying and marine surveying, the former having generally in view the measure or contents of certain tracts of land, and the latter the position of beacons, towers, shoals, coasts, &c. Those extensive operations which have for their object the determination of the latitude and longitude of places, and

the length of terrestrial arcs in different latitudes, also fall under the general term surveying, though they are frequently called trigonometrical surveys, or geodetic operations, and the science itself geodesy. (See Trigonometry, Degrees, Heights, and Triangle.) Land surveying consists of three distinct operations: 1. the measuring of the several lines and angles; 2. protracting or laying down the same on paper, so as to form a correct map of an estate or country; 3. the computation of the superficial contents, as found by the preceding operation. Various instruments are used for the purpose of taking the dimensions, the most indispensable of which is the chain commonly called Gunter's chain, which is 22 yards long, and is divided into 100 links, each 7.92 inches: 10 of these square chains, or 100,000 square links, is one acre. This is used for taking the linear dimensions when the area of the land is required; but when only the position of objects is to be determined, a chain of 50 or 100 feet is more commonly used. A great deal of labor is frequently saved by having proper instruments for measuring angles. The most usual and the best adapted for this purpose are the circumferentor, theodolite and semicircle. The surveyor's cross, or cross-staff, is likewise very convenient for raising perpendiculars. For surveying in detail, the plain table is the best instrument. Of the German works on this subject, Meyer's Unterricht zur praktischen Geometrie (1815), and Lehmann's Anweisung zur richtigen Erkennung und genauen Abbildung der Erdoberfläche (1812), deserve to be recommended. (See Topography.)

SUS. PER COLL. On the trial of criminals in England, the usage at the assizes is for the judge to sign the calendar, or list of all the prisoners' names, with their separate judgments in the margin. For a capital felony, the sentence "Hanged by the neck" is written opposite the prisoner's name. Formerly, in the days of Latin and abbreviation, the phrase used was sus. per coll., for suspendatur per collum.

SUSQUEHANNA, the largest river of Pennsylvania, is formed by two branches which unite at Northumberland. The east branch rises in Otsego lake, in New York: the western branch rises in Huntingdon county, Pennsylvania. After their junction, the river flows south-east into the head of Chesapeake bay, and is one and one fourth mile wide at its mouth. It is navigable only five miles.

SUSSEX, Augustus Frederic, duke of,

sixth son of George III, and second surviving brother of the present king, was born Jan. 27, 1773, and received his education, with his brothers, the dukes of Cumberland and Cambridge (see the articles), at Göttingen. He then travelled in Italy, and spent four years at Rome, where, in 1793, he married lady Augusta Murray, daughter of the Catholic earl of Dunmore, according to the forms of the Roman Catholic church. On their return to England, they were again married by bans in London; and the duke offered to resign his claims as a member of the royal family, on condition that his marriage should not be disturbed. It was, how ever, soon after declared invalid by the ecclesiastical court, as contrary to the provisions of the royal marriage act, 12 Geo. III, c. 11, which declares that no descendant of George II shall be capable of contracting matrimony without the consent of the king. On the publication of this sentence, lady Augusta, who had become the mother of two children, separated from the duke, and passed the rest of her life in retirement. In 1861, the prince was created earl of Inverness and duke of Sussex, and received a parliamentary grant of £12,000 per annum, which was subsequently increased by the addition of £9000. It is the boast of the duke that he has never applied for any grant from parliament, and that he has paid his debts fully from the savings of his pension. The duke is an easy speaker, and has often spoken in the house of lords, particularly in favor of measures for the relief of Catholics, and usually addresses the many charitable and literary societies of which he is a member. He has been for a long time president of the society for the encouragement of the useful arts, and has recently been elected president of the royal society. He has been the friend and patron of learned men, and is himself a scholar. He has collected a valuable library, particularly rich in Bibles and dictionaries. A catalogue has been published by Pettigrew (Bibliotheca Sussexiana, 1828). In his political principles, the duke has been attached to the whigs, and was consequently in the opposition during the regency and reign of his brother George IV. His liberal opinions in politics, and the part which he took in favor of the queen (see Caroline Amelia), estranged him from the court; but a reconciliation took place during the king's last illness. The children of the duke by lady Augusta Murray bear the name of D'Este.

SUSSMEYER, Francis Xavier; a composer at Vienna, a pupil of Salieri, and, from 1795, attached to the imperial opera at Vienna. He died in 1803, thirty-seven years old. He composed several operas, and supplied those parts of Mozart's requiem which that great master left unfinished.

SUTTEE, or, more properly, SATI; a word in the Sanscrit, or sacred language of the Hindoos, meaning pure, and hence extensively applied to their female deities, and to acts of purification, especially to that preeminent species, the self-immolation of the widow on the funeral pile of her deceased husband. The name of this horrid sacrifice is commonly written suttce by the English; but sati is the correct mode of spelling it, according to the orthographical system of sir W. Jones. The origin of satiism, or sutteeism, is buried in mythology. The goddess Sati, to avenge an insult offered to her husband Iswara by her father's neglect to invite him to an entertainment, consumed herself before the assembled gods.* To lord Bentinck, governor-general of India, belongs the honor of having abolished this shocking perversion of devotion in the British dominions. This abolition took place in December, 1829. Until then, the British government had permitted it, provided the act was perfectly voluntary (which the religion of Brahma also prescribes), and if notice of such resolution had been previously given to a magistrate, who was required to see that the suttee was public, and that all the requisitions of the law were fulfilled. We learn from bishop Heber's Narrative that the opinions of well-informed men, to whom the cause of humanity was equally dear, were divided respecting the abolition of these self-sacrifices, some believing that suttees would then take place in secret, and be more common than before,. and that opportunities, moreover, would be afforded for many murders. The people are said to have heartily rejoiced at the abolition; but, what may well surprise us, the East India Magazine states that an English lawyer went from India to England to prosecute an appeal before the privy council, made by some Brahmins in Bengal, against lord Bentinck's prohibition of suttees. The same journal states that this "custom had its origin in the excessive jealousy of the early Hindoo princes, who, with a view to prevent their

* See Tod's Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan; also the review of it in the American Quarterly, number xx, December, 1831.

numerous widows forming subsequent attachments, availed themselves of their irresponsible power; and, with the aid of the priests, it was promulgated, as if by sacred authority, that the wives of the Hindoos of every caste, who desire future beatitude, should immolate themselves on the demise of their husbands. Since 1756, when the British power in India became firmly established, upwards of 70,000 widows have been cruelly sacrificed! A Brahmin possesses the privilege of marrying as many wives as he pleases. Ununtu, a Brahmin who died at Bagnapore, had more than one hundred wives: twenty-two were burned at his death. The fire was kept burning three days. He had married four sisters, two of whom were burned with his corpse. A short time before lord Bentinck's order, a rajah in the hill country, who died, had twenty-eight wives burned with his body." So far the East India Magazine. Perhaps, however, this self-immolation is in part owing to the surprisingly little value which Hindoos put on human life (hence so many suicides, infanticides, immolations and self-immolations), and to the relation of the Hindoo wife to her husband. None of the sacred books of the Hindoos command the suttee, though they speak of it as highly meritorious: it is believed to render the husband and his ancestors happy, and to purify him from all offences, even if he had killed a Brahmin. (See the Veda, &c., quoted before the privy council, June 23, 1832, to support the above-mentioned petition.) The rule is, that the act of the widow must be voluntary; but we can easily imagine that the fanaticism or cupidity of relations often compels the Hindoo widow to immolate herself, just as they forced women, in the middle ages, to take the veil, which also is required, by the rules of the church, to be voluntary. The ceremonies of a suttee are various, and last from a quarter of an hour to two hours. Sometimes the widow is placed in a cavity prepared under the corpse of the husband; sometimes she is laid by the body, embracing it. If the husband was not a Brahmin, it is not required that the corpse should be burned with the widow: any thing which belonged to the deceased-his garments, slippers, walking-staff may be substituted for the corpse. There were, according to official report, above forty suttees in the province of Ghazepoor in 1324; and several had taken place not reported to the magistrate.

SUWAROFF-RIMNITZKOY, Peter Alexis Wasiliowitsch, count of, prince Italinski,

field-marshal and generalissimo of the Russian armies, one of the most distinguished generals of the eighteenth century, was born at Suskoy, a village of the Ukraine, in 1730. His father, an officer, placed him in the military academy at Petersburg; and, in his seventeenth year, Suwaroff entered the service as a common soldier, and gave proofs of his courage in the war against Sweden. In 1754, he became lieutenant, and, after distinguishing himself in the seven years' war (q. v.), received the command of a regiment, in 1763. In 1768, he obtained the rank of brigadier-general, and served several campaigns in Poland, receiving, in reward for his courage and conduct, the crosses of three Russian orders of knighthood. In 1773, he was appointed to the command of a division of the troops under count Romanzoff, and completely defeated a portion of the Turkish army at Turtukey, killing several of the enemy with his own hand. Crossing the Danube, he afterwards, in conjunction with the force under Kamenskoy, routed the army of the reis effendi with great slaughter, and the capture of all his artillery. In 1783, he reduced the Budziac Tartars under the Russian yoke. In 1787, being chief in command, he was intrusted with the defence of Kinburn, then attacked by the Turkish forces both by sea and land; and, after an obstinate siege, succeeded in repulsing his assailants with considerable loss. At Oczakow and Fockzami (at the former of which places he received a severe wound) his daring valor was equally displayed; and, in the September of 1789, the Austrian troops, under the prince of Saxe-Coburg, being surrounded, on the banks of the Rimnik, by 100,000 Turks, owed their preservation to his timely arrival with 10,000 Russians, who not only rescued them from a destruction that appeared inevitable, but occasioned the utter overthrow of the enemy.

To this victory he was indebted for the first of his above-named titles, and the dignity of a count of both empires. The next, and perhaps the most sanguinary of his actions, was the storming of Ismail (q. v.), in 1790. This strongly fortified town had resisted all attempts to reduce it for a period of seven months, when Suwaroff received peremptory orders from prince Potemkin (q. v.) to take it without delay, and pledged himself to execute the task assigned him in three days. Of the sacking of the place on the third, and the indiscriminate massacre of 40,000 of its inhabitants, of every age and sex, the ac

counts of the period give the most revolting reports. The announcement of his bloody triumph was made by the general, who affected a Spartan brevity in his despatches, in the words "Glory to God! Ismail is ours." Peace being proclaimed with Turkey, the empress (see Catharine II) had leisure to mature her designs against the devoted kingdom of Poland; and Suwaroff was selected as a fit instrument to carry them into execution. He marched, accordingly, at the head of his troops, to Warsaw, destroying about 20,000 Poles in his way, and ended a campaign of which the unprincipled partition of the country was the result. (See Praga, and Poland.) On this occasion, he received a field-marshal's baton, and an estate in the dominions which he had contributed to annex to the Russian crown. The last and most celebrated of his actions was his campaign in Italy in 1799, when his courage and genius for a while repaired the disasters of the allied forces. Paul gave him the command of the Russian forces destined to act with the Austrians, and the emperor of Germany created him field-marshal, and commander-in-chief of the Austrian troops in Italy. He gained several brilliant victories at Piacenza, Novi, &c., and drove the French from all the towns and fortresses of Upper Italy, and was rewarded for his services with the title of prince Italinski. But, in consequence of a change in the plan of operations, he passed the Alps; and the defeat of Korsakoff at Zürich (see Masséna), together with the failure of the expected assistance from the Austrians, obliged Suwaroff to retreat from Switzerland. Paul, offended with the Austrian court, now recalled the prince, in spite of his remonstrances; and preparations were made for his triumphal entry into Petersburg. Meanwhile, Suwaroff, having evaded an imperial order, directing the generalissimo to name each general in turn general of the day, by appointing prince Bagration standing general of the day, was declared, by command of the emperor, to have deserved censure, and the preparations for his triumph were suspended. Chagrin at this disgrace hastened his death, which took place May 18, 1800, sixteen days after his arrival at Petersburg. Suwaroff was a remarkable man. Though feeble and sickly in his youth, he had acquired a sound constitution by his simple and abstemious mode of life: he slept upon straw, and his whole wardrobe consisted of his regimental uniform and a sheepskin. He ob

served punctiliously all the ceremonies of his religion, and never gave the signal for battle without crossing himself, and kissing the image of St. Nicholas. He was inflexible in his purposes, faithful to his promises, and incorruptible: in courage, promptness of decision and action, he has had few equals. His contempt of money, his coarse manners, and his intrepidity, rendered him the favorite of his soldiers; but the superior officers were often offended by the severity of his discipline. Although acquainted with several modern languages, he never entered into any political or diplomatic correspondence; and he was accustomed to say that a pen was unbecoming the hand of a soldier. His orders and reports were often written in doggerel verse.

SWABIA. (See Suabia.)

SWALLOW (hirundo). The air seems to be truly the home of the swallows: they eat, drink, sometimes even feed their young, on the wing, and surpass all other birds in the untiring rapidity of their flight and evolutions. The beak is short, broad at base, very much flattened, and very deeply cleft, forming a large mouth, well adapted to the purpose of seizing winged insects, which constitute their accustomed food. The feet are very short, and the wings remarkably long. In winter they migrate to tropical climates, a few days being sufficient to pass from the arctic to the torrid zone. In the spring they return; and it has been found by experiment that individuals always come back to their former haunts. They sweep over our fields, our rivers, and through our very streets, easily eluding all enemies by their powers of wing. We have six species in the U. States.-The barn swallow, (H. rufa) is most abundant east of the Alleghany mountains. Here it is our most common species, always seeking the society of man, and very frequently attaching its nest to the rafters in barns, &c. The upper parts are steel blue, the lower light chestnut, and the wings and tail brownishblack; the tail is greatly forked, and each feather, except the two middle ones, is marked on the inner vane with a white spot. The white-bellied swallow (H. viridis) is less abundant than the preceding, but not unfrequently takes possession of the boxes intended for the purple martin. The upper parts are light, glossy, greenishblue; the wings brown-black, with slight green reflections, and the whole lower parts pure white: the tail is forked, but slightly, in comparison with the barn swallow, from which it may also be distin