cause they represent faith in Christ as a necessary condition of salvation.

UNIVERSALS; the name given by the schoolmen to general notions, especially those of genera and species. It was a long-agitated question, whether general notions correspond to any real existences out of ourselves, or are derived merely from our conceptions; whether such existences are of a corporeal nature or not; and, in the latter case, whether they are separate from individual existences, or only within them. On these points, a dispute was long maintained between the nominalists and realists. (See Nominalist.)

UNIVERSE, SYSTEM OF. (See System of the Universe.)

UNIVERSITIES; establishments for instruction, in which all the most important branches of science are taught, and which have, at the same time, the right to confer honorary distinctions on scientific merit. They differ from academies (q. v.), which are societies of scholars for some common scientific purpose, without the connexion of teacher and learner, and without any distribution of dignities. The epithet academical, however, is often applied to both kinds of institutions. The Latin name universitas originated in the beginning of the thirteenth century, and signified, originally, the body of students; at a later period, the body of teachers and students assembled in one place. At a still later period, the expression universitas literarum was used to indicate that all the most important branches of science were to be taught in these establishments. With the ancients, the superior institutions for instruction were called scholæ, or studia. This latter appellation remained longest in Italy; and we find, in old authors, the expressions studium Patavinum, Bononiense (university of Padua and Bologna). The time of the origin of the first universities in Europe cannot be precisely ascertained. Previous to the age of Charlemagne, Europe had sunk into the greatest barbarism, in consequence of the migrations of the northern and eastern tribes, and the incessant and devastating wars which attended them. Charlemagne deserves the praise of having zealously striven to promote the cultivation of science throughout his vast dominions, with the aid of the Englishman Alcuin. (q. v.) By his command, schools were established in every convent and cathedral, intended chiefly for the education of clergymen; but young men of high families, not destined for religious orders, also received instruction in them. These convent and cathe

dral schools (q. v.) were, for a long time, the highest institutions for education in the countries where they were established. From them proceeded men like Adam of Bremen, Lambert of Aschaffenburg, &c. By degrees, the light of science, which had been so long obscured, began to shine more brightly; teachers arose in various places; an ardent thirst for knowledge collected numerous scholars around them, and a new kind of schools arose, the heads of which called themselves rectores. In Paris, several such teachers appeared in the twelfth century, who gave instruction chiefly in rhetoric, philosophy and theology. They were not all of the clerical order: even the celebrated Abelard (q. v.), when he opened his school, was not yet a clergyman. The advantages and the pleasures connected with a city like Paris, as well as the great reputation which these teachers acquired, drew a vast number of young men to that city; and thus the first European university grew up there. It was not founded by any monarch, nor endowed with any privileges. Teachers and scholars were entirely independent, and could change their residence at pleasure. They regulated their conduct by a constitution of their own making, which seems to have been tacitly acquiesced in by the government. Towards the end of the twelfth century, king Philip Augustus granted them immunity from the jurisdiction of the royal courts. Teachers and students formed themselves into corporations. Originally, each school had its own rector; but now, in 1206, a common rector was chosen: thus the whole mass of students and teachers came to constitute one body, called, on that account, universitas. The continually increasing number of teachers and students, however, made several ordinances of the government necessary for the maintenance of good order. A public insult offered, in 1229, to the students of Paris, and for which they could not obtain the required satisfaction from the court, made them so indignant, that a great part of them removed, with their teachers, from Paris. Their departure seems to have been severely felt, and the court strove to bring them back: by the mediation of pope Gregory IX, a reconciliation was effected; and the privileges of the university, which had been, so far, only acquiesced in, were increased and confirmed. About the time when the schools of Paris were established, perhaps even somewhat earlier, the first teachers of medicine appeared at Salerno, in Naples,

and Montpellier The school of Salerno (schola Salernitana), at a later period, acquired celebrity, even in foreign countries, by the dietetic rules published under its name. At Bologna, the first instruction in Roman law was given. Irnerius (Werner) taught it here in the twelfth century with great applause. To all these places many young men resorted. The relations between the students and teachers, and between the schools and the government, were similar to those in Paris. The constitutions which they had made for themselves were confirmed, and their privileges even increased in the twelfth century. At the same time when the teachers and students constituted themselves into one body, the division of students into nations originated. These were associations of those who were natives of the same nation. They had their separate heads (procuratores), funds and regulations. This division into nations is an essential feature in the original constitutions of the oldest universities. The time of its origin cannot be accurately settled. The university of Paris, however, is the one in which the division into nations is earliest mentioned in diplomas and in historical works. In 1206, the division into four nations had become established. These were the French (in which, also, the students from Italy and Spain were included), the Picard, the Norman and the English. The last comprehended also the Germans, and all students from the north of Europe. At a later period, this nation was called the German. This number, probably at first merely accidental, was subsequently adopted also in the German universities. In the Italian universities, a similar division into nations took place. Equally uncertain with the origin of this division is also the origin of the distribution of academic honors, and the institution of distinct faculties. Probably they also originated in Paris, in the second half of the twelfth century. The first public teachers (Abelard in Paris, Irnerius in Bologna, and others) had received no invitation nor permission to teach from any one. But, subsequently, the state, as well as the members of the university, were careful that only wellqualified persons should lecture. Examinations were therefore established. He who was found qualified to teach, received a formal permission to lecture publicly, accompanied with certain symbols in the spirit of the age. The first academical degree was that of baccalaureus (see Bachelor); the second that of licentiati. (See

Licentiate.) If the licentiate afterwards received the cap of magister (for which a certain sum was paid), he became a colleague of his former teachers, and participated in all their privileges. Such examinations and solemn distributions of academic honors (promotiones) were customary in Paris as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century. The title of magister (master) at Paris corresponded to that of doctor at Bologna. These promotiones, with the previous examinations, gave rise to the faculties. The facultas artium (the faculty of the seven liberal arts, or what is now called the philosophical faculty) existed long before. As these sciences had been taught in Paris from a very early period, the faculty of arts had the precedence of the others, which, however, has been subsequently denied to it. The other faculties were, as they still are, those of theology, law and medicine. The year 1259 is considered as the time of the establishment of faculties. In this year, the mendicant orders and secular clergy united, and formed a sort of corporation of teachers of theology. In 1260, the teachers of medicine imitated them, as did those of the canon law; and the four nations, which remained in the possession of all their privileges, formed the faculty of arts. The faculties elected deans from among their number, who, with the procuratores of the nations, represented the university. Among the public institutions which were established in the universities in the thirteenth and the following century, were the colleges (collegia), buildings in which students, especially poor ones, might live together, under superintendence, without paying for their lodging. In some cases, they also received their board gratis, or had still further allowances. The first and most distinguished of these colleges were at Paris; but here, as in other places, they degenerated by degrees, and did not remain the asylum of poor students. In England, the colleges (q. v.) have acquired a greater extent and importance:-in fact, there, the whole university consists of a number of separate colleges, in which the business of instruction is mainly carried on. In German universities, something similar was introduced, namely, the bursa (charitable establishments, in which students could live for a very low rent). The name bursa was also given to certain boarding-houses, established by professors. Those who lived in such burse were called bursarii; hence the German word Bursche. The first teachers of the ancient universities were not paid by gov

trict or part of Germany: thus the Landsmannschaften (countrymanships) originated. These, also, soon degenerated. All the students divided themselves into Schorists (preceptores) and Pennale (pen-cases.) (See Pennalism.) The latter were abused by the former, and, when they succeeded to their places, abused those who came after them. (See Schöttgen's History of Pennalism, 1747.) This lasted almost 100 years. In the beginning of the eighteenth century originated the orders. The chiefs of the orders were called seniors. They made their own constitutions, called comments. The orders generally comprised but few members, and, in their turn, degenerated, owing partly to the spirit of the time, and partly to the circumstance that the students had a particular academical jurisdiction. New Landsmannschaften were created to oppose them, which were chiefly founded on very misconceived notions of honor. The abuses to which these institutions led continued until 1813, when the feeling that Germany ought to be united, inspired all classes with a common sentiment of patriotism; and, after those individuals who had fought and bled for their common country returned to the universities, they felt the petty character of the Landsmannschaften, and the Burschenschaften were established-unions of all the students of a university, without regard to the particular German territory from which they came. Better morals and notions of honor became prevalent; but, as the liberal principles, which animated all Germany, were manifested in a particular degree by the young men at the universities, the German governments became suspicious, and abolished the Burschenschaften.*-In order to give an idea of the character of the English universities, we have extracted the following observations from an account of Oxford university, in the English Quarterly Journal of Education, No. III, for July, 1831. Oxford is an establishment for the purposes of education which corresponds to a

*The general organization of a German university is as follows:-A number of professores ordinarii are appointed for the various branches. They divide themselves into four faculties, each having a dean annually chosen by themselves from among their number. All these professors generally form the senate, at the head of which is the rector, who is chosen annually. They have jurisdiction over the students, in regard to small offences and matters of police, and make the general provisions respecting instruction, with the consent of the government. Professors in most universities are appointed by the government. Besides these professors, there are an indefinite number of professores extraordinarii, for

federal body united for political purposes. As, in this latter case, the several ste of have separate jurisdictions, separate duties, and, to a certain extent, separate interests, so the several colleges and halls which compose the academical body, have each its own private regulations for the education of its members, but all contribute to the university education. This may be brought under the heads of public examinations and college preparation. In its early constitution, and in the gradual additions which for many ages were made to it, the system now followed in the German universities was kept in view, and professorships or readerships in the different arts and sciences were established; but these university officers are no longer the main sources of instruction. The demand for instruction created by the degree examination, is met almost exclusively by lectures delivered in the several colleges and halls, or, rather, by private tutors in the colleges and halls; so exclusively, indeed, that, although some knowledge of Greek is essential for a degree, and a considerable proficiency for the higher class degrees, the Greek professor has no lectures. What is actually required for a degree of bachelor of arts, is, that the student should display some acquaintance with the facts and doctrines of the Christian religion, and especially with the peculiar tenets of the church of England, as set forth in its articles; some proficiency in the Greek and Latin languages, in one or more of the ancient philosophical treatises, or, in lieu of this, in a portion of ancient history; some knowledge, also, either of the elements of logic or of the elements of geometry. The statute, however, contemplates the probability of a much higher standard of qualification in a portion of the students; and for these it provides honors additional to that of a mere degree. Their names are printed, arranged in four classes, according to a fixed standard of merit for each class.

the same branches, or for particular parts of them. They receive small salaries, and are the persons to whom the government look to fill vacancies. They are generally persons who have distinguished themselves, and whose talents the government wish to secure. In Berlin, there are a great many of these extraordinary professors. The last class of lecturers are the docentes, or licentiates, who, after undergoing an examination, have obtained permission to teach (licentia docendi). They receive no salary. Any person can request to be examined by the faculty in this way, and thus capacitate himself to teach. From them the professores extraordinarii are ordinarily taken. Every person in these three classes can lecture upon whatever