all Christians-were taken, almost literally, either from the Bible or other acknowledged authorities of the Catholic church. Quesnel, who, after his exile, lived in Amsterdam, was considered by the Jesuits as the principal champion of the Jansenists since the death of Arnauld and Nicole. The hatred of the Jesuits towards him and the archbishop of Paris, cardinal Noailles, who was almost universally revered, and who had publicly recommended Quesnel's work, and honorably maintained his independence against Le Tellier, affords an explanation of this arbitrary measure. The world was astounded to see the papal condemnation extended, not merely to those passages in which Quesnel, as a true Jansenist, ascribed to divine grace an unconditional and irresistible influence upon the human heart, but also to those which insisted upon purity of motives, on the necessity of true religious love of virtue, and reconciliation with God, on the general use of the Bible, on the correction of the morals of the clergy, and the necessity of a conscientious fulfilment of their duties; and was unable to understand why the chief of the Roman church had yielded so far to the Jesuits and the French court as to issue, under his name, a denunciation of some of the fundamental truths of Christianity; for the bull was considered as such, not only by many Jansenists, but also by many other Catholics in foreign countries. The French parliament, cardinal Noailles, with a large part of the French clergy, the majority of the theologians of Sorbonne, even the French ladies (from whom the bull, by condemning the passage of Quesnel "that women ought to be allowed the means of a thorough knowledge of religion and the holy Scriptures," withholds the fundamental right of Christians), and public opinion, either openly declared against this bull-which was universally considered as the production of the Jesuits or actively opposed it in private; whilst the Jesuits, through the king, used all the means of power and persuasion to make the bull a law of the realm. But, though a large number could be won over by royal decrees, by bribes, threats, and the arrest of some refractory persons of lower rank, yet nothing was to be effected by these means against the parliament and the archbishop. The former would not enrol the bull as a law of the kingdom, except on certain conditions, which invalidated it almost entirely; the latter at first refused to

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publish the bull; and when he did proclaim it at a later period, it was with explanations which greatly mitigated its rigor. During this contest, Louis XIV died, without having obtained a complete victory. The streets of Paris resounded with songs in ridicule of the "constitution;" the Parisians gave its name, Unigenitus, to the natural daughter of its bearer, the papal nuncio Bentivoglio; numerous pamphlets were written on the question; and all France became divided into "constitutionists" or acceptants," and "anti-constitutionists," " recusants," or "opponents." During the regency, which was not favorable to the Jesuits, several bishops, in connexion with the members of the Sorbonne and the archbishop of Noailles, dared to appeal, against the bull, to a general council; and thus the opposition party, which was supported by the most distinguished universities and ecclesiastical corporations, received the name of appellants. This party became divided, when Noailles agreed, in 1720, to sign the bull conditionally, and thus excited against himself the zealous appellants. Louis XV, and his minister Fleury, who was desirous of the cardinal's hat, and therefore flattered the Jesuits, treated the appellants with great severity; the priests belonging to the party were discharged; the laymen were refused the sacraments; at length, the court, in 1728, induced the archbishop of Paris, then eighty years old, to sign the bull unconditionally; and, in 1730, the parliament was forced to register it without reservation, by which it became a law of the land. The persecuted appellants remained, nevertheless, active, and, in 1752, the parliament ventured on new and bold steps to remedy the cruel refusal of the sacrament. The contest broke out with renewed bitterness, and at length was assuaged by a moderate brief of Benedict XIV, which ordered severity against open appellants only. In addition to this, the order of the Jesuits was abolished; a consequence of which was naturally the gradual decrease of the importance of the unhappy bull Unigenitus in France. In other Catholic countries it had been adopted, indeed, but little observed, as the whole scope of it was directed against a party in France. In the Austrian monarchy, where some bishops had published it, it was formally suppressed in 1781, together with the bull In Cœna Domini. It now belongs only to history, as the popes themselves do not insist on it as a rule of faith.

UNION CANAL. (See Canals.)

UNISON; that consonance, or coincidence of sounds, proceeding from an equality in the number of vibrations made in a given time by two sonorous bodies; or the union of two sounds, so directly similar to each other in respect of gravity or acuteness, that the ear, perceiving no difference, receives them as one and the same. The ancients were much divided in opinion respecting the question whether the unison be a consonance. Aristotle speaks in the negative. Muris Mersennus, and others, declare in the affirmative. The decision of the question, however, depends on the definition we give to the word consonance. If by a consonance we only understand two or more sounds agreeable to the ear, the unison is a consonance; but if we include in the consonance sounds of a different pitch, that is, sounds less or more acute with respect to each other, the unison, by its own definition, is not a consonance.

UNITARIANS. (See Appendix, end of this volume.)

UNITAS FRATRUM. (See United Brethren.)

UNITED BRETHREN (Protestant), or UNITAS FRATRUM; the official denomination of the religious society commonly known by the name of Moravians. This society was originally formed by descendants of the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren (see Bohemian Brethren), who, being persecuted for their religious tenets, and non-conformity in their native country, founded a colony, under the patronage of count Zinzendorf (q. v.), on an estate of his, called Berthelsdorf, in Upper Lusatia, in the year 1722, to which colony the name of Herrnhut was given, on account of its situation on the southern declivity of a hill called the Hutberg. It was not until the number of emigrants from Bohemia and Moravia, who there found an asylum, had considerably increased, and many religiously disposed persons from other quarters, attracted by their pious zeal and their sufferings, had settled along with them, that the diversity of sentiments, perceptible among so many zealous Christians of various modes of thinking, suggested to them the propriety of some general agreement concerning faith and rules of conduct. Accordingly, under the guidance of count Zinzendorf, who, from an early age, had entertained an idea of constituting a Christian community, on the model of the primitive apostolic congregations, certain articles of union were proposed among them,

which, leaving all the distinctive doctrines of the various Protestant denominations of Christians entirely out of the question, adopted, as articles of faith, only those fundamental Scripture truths in which they all agree, and, at the same time, introduced a system of social compact and church discipline resembling that of the ancient church of the Moravian Brethren, and intended to form a society in some degree such as the primitive churches are represented to have been. All the inhabitants of Herrnhut, after mature consideration, adopted this social scheme and these statutes, by the name of a brotherly agreement, and pledged themselves mutually to its observance, in the year 1727, and thus formed the first stock of the present society of United Brethren. Count Zinzendorf was justly, in some measure, considered the founder of the society, to which he thenceforward devoted his whole life, property and energy. It will be readily conceived, however, more especially after observing that further emigrations from Bohemia and Moravia were checked by the Saxon government at an early period, that the descendants of the first emigrants, at this day, constitute but a small proportion of the present society. Individuals from all Protestant denominations, coinciding in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity common to all, and professing a desire to lead a truly Christian life, as members of such a community, under its peculiar regulations, were, from the beginning, admitted among them, without renouncing their original church and creed. On the contrary, to facilitate the maintenance of their connexion with their original churches, the society expressly includes three different tropes or modifications within its pale, the Lutheran, the Reformed and the Moravian, which latter comprises all other Protestant denominations. Experience has taught, that these differences, among persons so intimately associated, vanish of themselves to such a degree, that the original idea of these tropes is now maintained only as an evidence of the principle of their union, while its practical consequences have become altogether imperceptible. The United Brethren, however, continue strenuously to object to being considered a separate sect or denomination, because their union is exclusively founded on general Christian doctrines, and their peculiarities relate solely to their social organization, which is intended only to facilitate their joint purpose of putting truly Christian princi

mittee elected biennially from among the inhabitants, generally by the votes of all male members, or by an intermediate body thus elected. The objects for which each community has thus to provide, are, the erection and maintenance of a church, the support of the active ministers and other officers, of proper schools, and all other things necessary for the well-being of the community and the preservation of good order, while the individuals composing it are as entirely independent in their private property as any other persons whatever; each carrying on his particular business, for his own profit, and upon his own responsibility. A contrary impression, viz. that there exists a community of goods among them, is still very prevalent, especially in America. This is at tributable to the fact, that, when their colonies in America were commenced, it was for some years found necessary to combine the efforts of all the members, in order to maintain themselves amid their difficulties; and, although each individual retained the absolute disposal of any property, before his own, their joint earnings, for the time, went into a common stock, from which their daily necessities were supplied. This unnatural state of things, however, continued no longer than it was imperiously necessary. Many other erroneous conceptions have become prevalent, concerning the economical concerns of this society. The original members of it had nothing to depend on but their industry. Count Zinzendorf and some of his nearest connexions sacrificed the whole of their estates in the various undertakings, missions and colonies. As the society grew, numbers of wealthy members afforded liberal aid; but the society never had any actual funds, upon which they could depend. Individual members borrowed the necessary sums, upon their own credit. These funds were invested, partly in commercial undertakings, partly in landed estates, and various manufactures, and the profits applied to pay the expenses of the society. Upon the death of count Zinzendorf, it was found that a debt had accrued, greatly exceeding the value of all the available investments. A separation of interests now took place. Each individual community assumed a proportionable share of the assets and debt, and thenceforward undertook the management of its individual concerns, and to provide for its own necessities by means of an institution, operating very much in the manner of a savings bank, termed

the diacony of each community. Moneys were taken up, under the special superintendence of the elders and of the committee above mentioned, and invested: the proceeds went to defray the disbursements of that particular community: the understanding was, that if the avails were such as to leave any thing to be disposed of after defraying their own expenses, such surplus was to go to aid other communities, whose means might not be so ample, or to assist the general concerns. Thus, in most communities of the United Brethren, certain trades or manufactures are carried on for their benefit, as such. By these means, together with the voluntary annual subscriptions of the members towards the maintenance of the ministers, and the support of the church and schools, the necessary funds are raised for defraying the charges on the particular communities, and for certain proportionate contributions, which each is expected to furnish to that fund of the Unity which is established for the support of superannuated ministers, and other officers, and their widows, as well as for the education of their children. The funds required, in each community, for the purposes of police and convenience, are raised by regular taxes on the householders, assessed by the committee before mentioned. The rest of the assets on hand, at the death of count Zinzendorf, were put under the control of a special board, forming one department of the board of elders of the Unity, and the proceeds applied to discharge the debt before mentioned. The disbursements required by the missions among the heathen are supplied by voluntary contributions. The greater part of the annual amount at the present time is furnished by persons not connected with the society. Some few of the West 'India missions are in part supported by the industry of the missionaries, and those in Labrador by a commercial establishment trading thither under the guidance of a society established at London. In the U. States there is a society for propagating the gospel among the heathen, incorporated by several states, and consisting of members of the United Brethren's church. This society has recently acquired large funds by the bequest of one of its members. All these resources flow into the common missionary fund, which is administered, and the missionary concern in general managed, by another department of the board of elders of the Unity, called the missionary depart

A

ment. (See the article Missions.) third department of this board is termed the department of education. This has charge, not only of the subject of the education of children throughout the society generally, but, in an especial manner, of those who are educated at the public expense. In many of the communities of United Brethren in Germany, England and America, boarding schools, for the education of young persons of both sexes, are established, in which not only their own youth, but a great number of others, are instructed in useful sciences and polite acquirements. For many years, these schools have sustained, and still maintain, a considerable reputation both in Europe and America. At Niesky, in Upper Lusatia, the Unity maintains a higher classical institution, where those receive a preparatory edu ́cation who intend to embrace the liberal professions, or be prepared for the ministry. The latter complete their studies in a college situated at Gnadenfeld, in Silesia, which serves the purposes of a university. Similar institutions, upon a smaller scale, are established at Fulnec for the English, and at Nazareth for the American portion of the Unity. These are, properly speaking, theological seminaries only. Young men desirous of devoting themselves to the medical or other learned professions, resort, of course, to the public universities of their respective countries. In the three departments of the board of elders of the Unity before alluded to, taken collectively, the direction of the whole Unity is concentrated. This board, however, is responsible to the synods of the society, which meet at stated times, generally at intervals of from seven to twelve years, and from whom all its authority emanates. They are composed of the bishops and civil seniors of the church, certain other general officers of the society, such as the members of the board of elders of the Unity for the time being, and of the representatives chosen by each individual community. At these meetings, a revision of all the concerns of the society and its parts takes place, and such alterations are adopted as circumstances seem to require. They are terminated by the appointment of a new board of elders of the Unity.

The following is a sketch of the mode of life of the United Brethren, where they form separate communities, which, however, is not always the case; for, in many instances, societies belonging to the Unity are situated in larger and smaller

cities and towns, intermingled with the rest of the inhabitants, in which cases their peculiar regulations are, of course, out of the question. In their separate communities, they do not allow the permanent residence of any persons as householders who are not members in full communion, and who have not signed the written instrument of brotherly agreement, upon which their constitution and discipline rests; but they freely admit of the temporary residence among them of such other persons as are willing to conform to their external regulations. According to these, all kinds of amusements considered dangerous to strict morality are forbidden, as balls, dancing, plays, gambling of any kind, and all promiscuous assemblies of the youth of both sexes. These, however, are not debarred from forming, under proper advice and parental superintendence, that acquaintance which their future matrimonial connexions may require. In the communities on the European continent, whither, to this day, numbers of young persons of both sexes resort in order to become members of the society from motives of piety and a desire to prepare themselves to become missionaries among the heathen, and where, moreover, the difficulties of supporting a family greatly limit the number of marriages, a stricter attention to this point becomes necessary. On this account, the unmarried men and boys, not belonging to the families of the community, reside together, under the care of an elder of their own class, in a building called the single brethren's house, where usually divers trades and manufactures are carried on, for the benefit of the house or of the community, and which, at the same time, furnishes a cheap and convenient place for the board and lodging of those who are employed as journeymen, apprentices, or otherwise, in the families constituting the community. Particular daily opportunities of edification are there afforded thein; and such a house is the place of resort where the young men and boys of the families spend their leisure time, it being a general rule, that every member of the society shall devote himself to some useful occupation. A similar house under the guidance of a female superintendent, and under similar regulations, is called the single sisters' house, and is the common dwelling place of all unmarried females, not members of any family, or not employed as servants in the families of the community. Even these regard the sisters' house as