times bleak and sterile, but generally covered to the tops with vegetation and forests. The country is well watered by numerous streams: the most considerable are the Arno, Cambrone and Chiana. The climate is generally pleasant and healthy, except the Maremma, or maritime district. The soil, for the most part, is a rich alluvial mould. The chief objects of culture are wheat, maize, beans, peas and a variety of vegetables; also clover and other artificial grasses; vines, mulberries, olives, oranges, lemons, figs; and rice in the marshy parts. Sheep and cattle are numerous in the mountainous districts. Near Pisa is a stud of camels, established at the time of the crusades. There are mines of copper, lead and quicksilver; also marble, alabaster, crys tal and rock salt. There are scarcely any large farms, but the land is divided into petty lots, and the culture takes place more commonly by the spade than the plough. Tuscany is no longer conspicuous for its manufactures: the most important article is silk. The commerce is considerable, and carried on chiefly through the port of Leghorn. The Tus cans are well formed, with a pleasing countenance, and, among all the people of Italy, are most fond of the arts and sciences: polite and kind in their manners, they are at the same time industrious and gay. The language of the Tuscans is considered the purest and finest dialect of Italy (see Italian Language and Literature); and in the history of letters and art, the names of Dante, Petrarca, Boccaccio, Galilei, Machiavelli, Giotto, Cimabue, Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, the Medici, &c., appear among the natives of Tuscany. There are universities at Florence (200 students), Pisa (450), Sienna (250). There is an observatory at Pisa; and the Florentine academy, and the academy of fine arts at Florence. Little has been done towards popular education; and, in 1818, there were 750,000 individuals, or about three quarters of the population of the best educated part of Italy, unable to read or write. The ancient names of this country were Tyrrhenia and Etruria. (See the articles.) After the fall of the Western Empire (476), it passed successively into the hands of the Ostrogoths (see Goths), Byzantine Greeks, and Lombards (q. v.), under whom Hetruscia formed a duchy. The name of Toscana dates from this period. Charlemagne made it a Frankish province; and it was governed by marquises or dukes, who, in course of time, rendered them

selves independent. In 1160, the emperor Frederic I purchased it of the Guelfs; but the towns endeavored to render themselves independent. Florence leagued herself with several cities against the empire, while Pisa, at the head of others, adhered to the emperors. For 300 years Tuscany was desolated by the contests of the Guelfs and Gibelines. (See Guelfs, and Italy.) In the middle of the thirteenth century, Sienna was a flourishing republic. The country was next distracted by the disputes between the nobles and the citizens, and, in 1343, the former were excluded from all share in the government in Florence. Next came the quarrels between the rich and the poor. The family of Medici finally acquired the favor of the poorer classes, and the sovereignty over Tuscany (14341737). During this period Pisa (1509) and Sienna (1557) were conquered by Florence. Tuscany became the seat of refinement and the arts under the patronage of the Medici. (q. v.) In 1569, Cosmo de' Medici had assumed the title of grand duke, and, in 1737, the grand duchy of Tuscany, on the failure of the Medici line, passed to Francis, duke of Lorraine, and, on his ascending the German throne (see Francis I), to the house of Austria. Napoleon formed the kingdom of Etruria of the Tuscan state (see Etruria, and Lucca); but, in 1814, the archduke Ferdinand III again took possession of it. The congress of Vienna then incorporated the Stato degli presidj, the principality of Piombino, with Elba and the enclaves, with the grand duchy. After the death of the archduchess Maria Louisa, Lucca will also be attached to Tuscany. The present grand duke, Leopold II (born 1797), nephew of the emperor of Austria, succeeded his father in 1824. The revenues of the state amount to about two and a quarter million dollars; the debt is nearly four millions. The grand duke is an absolute sovereign.-See Pignotti's History of Tuscany, with an Account of the Revival of Letters, Science and Art, from the Italian, by Browning (4 vols., 8vo., London, 1826).

TUSCULANUM; a celebrated villa of Cicero's near Tusculum. It was the favorite residence of the great orator, who not only adorned it more highly than any. of his other villas or estates, but also gave instructions here in philosophy, and conversed with his friends and disciples on those subjects which are treated of in his Tusculan Questions. Tusculum (now Frascati), one of the chief cities of ancient Latium,

lay to the north of Rome, in a delightful region, which was so filled with gardens and villas, that the whole distance from Rome to Tusculum seemed one great pleasure ground. According to fable, Tusculum was built by the son of Ulysses and Circe. Upon the classic soil of the ancient Tusculum lies Ruffinella, an estate bought by the late king of Sardinia of Lucien Bonaparte. (See Frascati, and Lucien Bonaparte.)

TUTENAG. This name is given in India to the metal zinc. It is also sometimes applied to a white metallic compound brought from China (called likewise Chinese copper), the art of making which is unknown in Europe. It is very tough, strong, malleable, and may be easily cast, hammered and polished. The better kinds of it, when well manufactured, are very white, and not more disposed to tarnish than silver. Three ingredients of this alloy have been discovered by analysis to be copper, zinc and iron.

TUTTI (Italian plural, all); a word used in contradistinction to solo, to point out where the whole band, or all the instruments of the kind required, are introduced.

TwEED, a river of Scotland, which rises in the south part of Peeblesshire, passes by or near to Peebles, Melrose, Kelso, Coldstream, from near which place it forms the boundary line between England and Scotland, and runs into the German sea, at Berwick.

TWELVE TABLES, LAWS OF THE. In the year 454 B. C., the Romans determined, at the suggestion of the tribunes, that a new code of laws should be prepared. An embassy was therefore sent to Greece, say the Roman historians, to examine the laws of that country. Meanwhile the consulship and tribuneship were both suspended, and a legislative body of ten patricians (decemviri), clothed with dictatorial powers was created, B. C. 451, A. U. 303. They collected the laws and customs, which were thenceforward to be of general application in place of the former partial and local laws, and thus laid the foundation of a system of common and equal law. This code was engraved upon ten oak tablets, to which two others were added in 450; hence the name Leges Duodecim Tabularum (Laws of the Twelve Tables). (See Civil Law, and Appius Claudius.) This account is found in Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, &c. See Dirksen's Review of the Attempts hitherto made towards a Critical Examination

and the Restoration of the Laws of the Twelve Tables (Leipsic, 1824). But it has been observed by Lelièvre, in his prize essay, Commentatio de Legum XII Tabularum Patria (Louvain, 1827), that the Roman and Athenian constitutions and legislation were essentially different from each other, and that no traces of Grecian law are discoverable in the Twelve Tables. Cicero and the Greek writers are also entirely silent as to the supposed Grecian origin of this earliest Western code.

TWICKENHAM; a populous village on the Thames, about ten and a half miles from London. Between Richmond bridge and this village is a rural walk, on the border of the river; and probably no promenade of a similar extent, in any part of England, presents a display of scenery so soft and so highly cultivated. The margin of the Thames is lined with stately dwellings, whose ornamental grounds descend to the water's edge; among which is the residence of Pope. The house was not large, but Pope took great delight in embellishing the grounds. The weeping willow, planted by him, perished in 1801, and another has been planted on the spot. Here he translated a part of the Iliad, and wrote the Dunciad, the Essay on Man, the Epistles, &c., and hence are dated the greater number of his letters; here, also, he died. His villa was taken down by baroness Howe, in 1807, and a new dwelling erected about one hundred yards from the site. His grotto has been stripped of its most curious spars and minerals, by persons desirous of procuring memorials of the poet. Strawberry hill (Walpole's villa), and its fine collection of virtù, are entire. In the church of Twickenham Pope and his parents are interred.

TWILIGHT; the faint light diffused through the atmosphere by the sun, some time before rising, and after setting. The atmosphere, by means of the vapors and clouds, refracts the rays of the sun, and turns them down on the unilluminated parts of the earth. The morning twilight begins, and the evening twilight ends, when the sun is about eighteen degrees below the horizon. When he is below that point, the smallest stars are visible to the naked eye, or it is entirely dark. The duration of the twilight is various. In the equatorial regions it lasts, during the equinox, one hour and twelve minutes, and increases as the sun recedes from the equator. At the poles, where there are six months day and six months night, the twilight continues about two months, so that

a great part of the half year's night is illuminated. It is doubly useful, since it shortens the night, and prevents, at the same time, the injurious effect, upon our eyes, of the sudden change from light to darkness.

TWIN; one of two young produced at a birth, by an animal that ordinarily produces but one. It is calculated that of eighty human births, one is of twins. Whether twins are begotten contemporaneously or successively is doubtful. Some examinations seem to render the latter more probable. Twins are often as different in body and disposition as other persons. They are often weakly after birth, and require especial care. Many rules are to be observed, during the birth of twins, which this is not the place to state. In astronomy, Twins, or Gemini, is a constellation of the zodiac, so called from the Dioscuri. (See Castor and Pollux.)

TYBURN TICKETS. (See Informer.) TYBURN TURNPIKE, at the west end of Oxford street, London, was formerly the place of public executions.

TYCHO (Tуge) BRAHE, a celebrated astronomer, descended from an old and noble family, was born, in 1546, upon his father's estate at Knub Strup, in Schönen, or Scania, a province then subject to Denmark. From early youth, he showed an inclination for the mathematical sciences. When he was fourteen years old, an eclipse of the sun, which took place exactly at the time predicted by the astronomers, made such an impression upon him, that he afterwards devoted himself with ardor to astronomy. He was sent to the university of Leipsic to study law, but employed himself, while there, almost exclusively in astronomical observations. After his return to Denmark, he married a peasant girl, upon his father's estate, and afterwards travelled to Italy and Germany, but refused the invitation of several princes, who wished to engage him in their service, upon advantageous terms. Frederic II, king of Denmark, gave him a considerable salary, and granted him for life the small island of Hween (Hven), lying in the Sound. Here Tycho erected, at the king's expense, the castle of Uranienborg, and an observatory. In this retreat, where he was visited by various princes, he framed that system of the universe . which is yet known by his name. He assumed the principle that the earth remains fixed and immovable in the centre of the universe, and that the sun and all the heavenly bodies revolve round it; but

succeeding astronomers have rejected Brahe's system, and adopted that of Copernicus. (q. v.) We are indebted to his observations for a more correct catalogue of the fixed stars, for several important discoveries respecting the motions of the moon and the comets, and the refraction of the rays of light (q. v.), and for important improvements in astronomical instruments: they served also as the basis of Kepler's astronomical labors. Tycho was likewise a skilful chemist, and found in poetry his recreation from severer studies. He was by no means free from the predilection of his time in favor of astrology, and had a propensity to superstition. His impetuous character, and his fondness for satire, made him many enemies, who prejudiced Christian IV, the successor of Frederic II, against him, so that he was deprived of his pension. On this account, he accepted, in 1597, an invitation of the emperor Rodolph II, who was a great friend to astronomy and astrology, to come to his court at Prague. Here he received a considerable salary and many aids in the prosecution of his studies; but he died in 1601. Tycho was, notwithstanding his faults and weaknesses, a remarkable man for the age in which he lived. His works are written in Latin. Such of his poems as are yet extant, do not possess much poetical merit. The emperor Rodolph purchased his pensive astronomical and other instruments; but they were mostly destroyed after the battle on the Weisseberg, near Prague, in 1620. A large sextant alone remains in Prague. The famous brass celestial globe, which was six feet in diameter, and cost about 3500 dollars, returned to Copenhagen, after various adventures, but perished in the great fire of 1728. Of the castle of Uranienborg, on the island of Hween, only the ruins are now to be seen, in digging among which, in 1823, Tycho's study was discovered. A fuller account of the life of Tycho, and a catalogue of his writings, are to be found in a work entitled Tycho Brahe, &c., an essay by Helfrecht (Hof, 1798).

ex

TYCHSEN, Olaus Gerhard, professor of the Oriental tongues at Rostock, was born in the duchy of Sleswick, in 1734. He studied at the gymnasium of Altona, where he acquired a knowledge of classical learning, and also became acquainted with the Hebrew and Arabic languages, previously to his removal to the university of Halle. There he added to his acquirements a knowledge of the English, the

Hindoostanee and Tamul languages, which he was taught by Schulz, and the Ethiopic, which he studied under Michaelis. Thus qualified, he was employed by a society for the conversion of the Jews and Mohammedans; and, in 1759 and 1760, he traversed various parts of the north of Germany, Prussia, Denmark and Saxony, on this mission. Soon after, he was appointed magister legens, at the newly-founded university of Bützow, where he received the professorship of the Oriental languages in 1763. This establishment being suppressed, and reunited to the university of Rostock in 1789, the library which had been collected by Tychsen, and of which he had been keeper since 1770, was removed to Rostock, and still committed to his care. He died in 1815. His works are numerous, including Tentamen de variis Codicum Hebraicorum Vet. Test. MSS. Generibus (1772, 8vo.); Introductio in Rem Numariam Muhammedanorum (1794, 8vo., with a Supplement); Physiologus Syrus, sive Historia Animalium XXXII, in S. S. memoratorum, Syriacé (1795, 8vo.); tracts On Samaritan Coins; On the Nail-headed Characters of Persepolis; and editions in Arabic and Latin of Makrizi's works On the Money and On the Weights and Measures of the Mohammedans. His papers and literary collection were purchased, after his death, for the university of Rostock.

TYMPANUM (Greek); a musical instrument, used by the Greeks and Romans, not unlike the tambourine, beaten with the hand, and much employed in religious ceremonies. In anatomy, tympanum signifies the membrane, or drum, of the

ear.

In architecture, it is the flat surface or space within a pediment.

TYNDALE, William. (See Tindal.) TYNDARIDES; the twins Castor (q. v.) and Pollux, and their sister Helena (q. v.), so called from their father, Tyndarus, king of Laconia.

TYPE (from the Greek Tinos, from TT, to strike); die; figure; outline; model. These various significations naturally sprung from the first. The word has been received into various modern languages. In numismatics, it has retained most of its original meaning, and signifies the impression on a coin or medal. In philosophy, it has been used, and is still used, in its most general sense, to designate those forms which are conceived to exist in the mind of the Creator, who regulates the universe (mens archetypa in the scholastic phrase), and which determine

the character of all individual existence. Kant, in some passages, has used the word schema to designate something similar. In nature, type, according to this conception, is that form which gives the character of similarity to all the individuals of a species, and at which nature seems continually to aim. To take but one example:-In crystals we find that an individual crystal never presents a perfect mathematical figure; yet we can show the angles, the sides, &c., of the mathematical figure, which nature strives to produce in each particular instance. The case is similar in the fine arts. Though no antique figure of Jupiter is precisely like another, nor any representation of Christ exactly similar to the rest, yet there is the same type in all, which is no vague conception, but can be clearly described. We must not confound this with the ideal. The ideal, which is before the eye of the artist, embraces all the peculiarities of his particular conception, as well as the general characteristics of the type, and is that image which he strives to represent in form or color. In theology, type signifies the representative relation which certain persons, events and institutions of the Old Testament are conceived, by some theologians, to have to corresponding individuals, events and institutions in the New Testament; e. g. certain sacrifices, ordained by Moses, are conceived to represent the great sacrifice of Christ-a view of the Old Testament which other theologians consider as unfounded.

TYPES, PRINTING. Printing, at the present day, is executed with movable types, which are oblong square pieces of metal, each bearing a letter in relief at one extremity. The metal of which they are made is an alloy, which consists essentially of lead and antimony. The lead is selected in preference to other metals, because it is fusible at a low temperature, and retains accurately the shape it receives from the mould. But as lead alone is too soft to sustain the friction and pressure to which it is liable in use, about a fifth part of antimony is added. This gives it a superior hardness when cast; and as this alloy has the property of shrinking less than most other metals as it cools, the type receives all the sharpness and finish, which it can acquire, by filling every part of the mould. In making types, the letter is first cut by an artist upon the end of a steel punch, answering to the shape of the intended type. This punch is driven into a piece of copper, which forms the matrix, or bottom

of the mould intended to produce the letter. As many varieties of punches must be made of steel as there are sizes and species of characters required. In casting, the types are formed with great rapidity, owing to the quickness with which the metal cools. An expert operator will make 2000 or 3000 types in a day. Some machines have been introduced for casting types, which operate with much greater rapidity. The characters upon types are of course reversed, so that, when they are arranged for the press, they stand in an opposite order to that in which they appear on the printed page. Before the types are applied to use, they are arranged in the cells, or compartments, of a long wooden receptacle, called a case; each species of letter, character or space by itself. In arranging the compartments, the collections of letters do not succeed each other in alphabetical order; nor are they all of equal size. Those letters which occur most frequently in printing, are required in greater numbers. They are therefore made to occupy the largest compartments, and are placed nearest to the compositor. Thus the letter e, which is of frequent occurrence, fills a large compartment, and is nearest the compositor; while the letter x, which occurs much less frequently, is provided in small numbers, and placed at the extremity of the case. In a bill or collection of types of the size called pica, weighing in all 800 pounds, the number of the letter e is 12,000; of t, 9000; of a, 8500; of i, n, o and s, 8000 each; of c there are 3000; of b, 1600; k, 800; x, 400, z, 200. This is for the English language. In other languages, the comparative frequency must be different. Different names are given to the various sizes of types, of which the following are most employed in common book printing: Pica.-a bcdefghijklm Small Pica.—a bcdefghijkl Long Primer.- a b d C e f g hijk Bourgeois.—a b c d e f go hijklmno Brevier.-a b cdefghijklmno Minion.—a b c d e f g hijklmnopqrstuv Nonpareil.-a b c d e f g h i j k lmnopqrstuv (See Bigelow's Technology; also the article Printing.)

pqrs

TYPHON (Typhaon, Typhonus, Typhos); in the Greek mythology, a monster, concerning whom the accounts are various. According to Hesiod, he was the son of the Earth and of Tartarus, who begot him in revenge for the defeat of the Ti

tans and giants by the Olympian gods. Eustathius relates that the Earth, grieved at the defeat of the Titans, had fomented discord between Juno and Jupiter. The former complained to Saturn, who gave her two eggs, with directions to place them upon the earth, declaring that the creature which should issue from them would be powerful enough to hurl Jupiter from his throne. Juno accordingly deposited the eggs upon mount Arime, in Cilicia, but, on being reconciled to her husband, disclosed to him what she had done. Jupiter prepared, therefore, to encounter the monster with his thunderbolts. According to Pindar, Typhon then dwelt in a dark cave, filled with poisonous exhalations (Typhoneum): he was larger and stronger than any thing which the Earth had borne. His head reached the stars; his arms extended from east to west; instead of fingers, 100 snakes proceeded from his hands; and around his middle were twined dreadful serpents, which raised themselves above his head, and uttered terrible hissings. His eyes darted fire.

Hesiod says, that from a hundred serpent heads flamed fiery eyes, and black tongues darted from their mouths: sometimes he roars like a lion, howls like a dog, or hisses so terribly that the mountains quake. This description answers to that of a tempest, which Hesiod himself declares Typhon to be. He is also described with wings, and is said to have stormed Olympus with masses of heated rocks and flames of fire, and to have made a way to the dwelling of the gods, with dreadful hissings. The gods fled to Egypt, and, when pursued thither, changed themselves into beasts. According to Apollodorus, Jupiter hurled his thunderbolts against him, and threatened him, when he approached nearer, with his adamantine sickle. The monster then fled to mount Casius, or Caucasus, where, after a fierce conflict, he bound the god with his serpents, and threw him into a cave. He then took from Jupiter his sickle, cut the tendons of his hands and feet, and carried him to Cilicia, where he confined him in the Corycian cave. The tendons, having been left in the care of the dragon Delphine, were stolen by Mercury and Ægipan, who cured Jupiter. The latter now pursued Typhon to Nysa, a mountain near the Serbonian lake, where the Parcæ had artfully detained him by offering him refreshments. But Typhon again escaped, and fled to Thrace. Here, on mount Hæmus, ensued a furious fight. Typhon hurled whole mountains upon his enemy, but finally fled to Sicily,