at the commencement of the fourteenth century, under one of their emirs, Osman, had founded an independent empire upon the ruins of the Greek, they began gradually to feel the necessity of more literary cultivation. Even sultan Orkan, the successor of Osman, although devoted to war and conquest, founded, in 1336, at Brussa, in Natolia, a literary institution, which became so celebrated for the learning of the teachers, that even Arabs and Persians were not ashamed to become scholars of the Turks. Their own historians remark that the monarchs of this house, until the time of Achmet I (1603), although not all equally distinguished by glorious undertakings and princely virtues, yet all gave lustre to their reigns, by their love and encourageinent of learning. The golden age of Turkish literature was in the second half of the fifteenth century, during the government of Soliman, who was called the lawgiver, the great-grandson of Mohammed II, whose victories put an end to the Roman empire. In the Turkish schools and higher literary establishments which are usually connected with the mosques, and whose number amounts in Constantinople to several hundreds, the principal branches taught are the Arabic, grammar, logic, rhetoric, dialectics, according to manuals which were written by the Arabians in the middle ages. In general, the Arabs of what we call the middle ages, continue to be the teachers of the Turks in philosophy, mathematics, physics, medicine, law, and theology. Treatises on astrology, the interpretation of dreams, and all the modes of predicting future events, form no inconsiderable part of Turkish literature, and are continually studied. Astrology, in particular, holds the rank of a science among the Turks, and has also an important influence upon all affairs of state and private concerns. The muned schim baschi (superior or court astrologer) is one of the most important court officers, since the time of the most important transactions is determined by him. The calendar is likewise prepared under his superintendence. But the instruments essential to investigations in natural science are, in Turkey, either entirely unknown, or used only in childish jugglery, to excite the astonishment of the ignorant. The telescope, the magnifying glass, the electrical machine, and all similar aids to the study of nature, the Turks do not know how to use to advantage. They do not even generally employ the compass in their sea voyages, Hence

navigation, astronomy, geography, agriculture, chemistry, and other sciences which have received an entirely new form by the discoveries of the moderns, must be in a very low state among the Turks. They are fond of history, but their historical works are written, for the most part, either in a dry chronological method, or in a bombastic style, half poetry, half prose, and overloaded with figures. One of their oldest and most esteemed annalists is Saad-ed-din, who, after having been the instructer and tutor of two sultans, died in the office of mufti at Constantinople, in 1599. His chronicle is entitled Tadsch-et-tawarich (that is, the Crown of Annals), and extends from the origin of the Turks to the death of Selim I, in 1520, and is regarded by the Turks as a classical work. It has been translated by Leunclavius into Latin, by Bratutti into Italian, and by Podesta into German and Latin. In the works of Naima, Raschid and Tchelebisade, the annals of the Turkish empire, from 1592 to 1727, are continued in unbroken succession. Hadschi Chalfa, surnamed Tchelebisade, who died at Constantinople, 1657, was distinguished for his historical and literary attainments. Under the title of Open Books, and Knowledge of Science, he composed a work of a cyclopædic and bibliographical character, in which the names of all the branches of science cultivated by the Arabians, Persians and Turks, are given, and the titles of all the works written in these three languages, from the 1st to the 1050th year of the Hegira (A. D. 1640). This work served as the foundation of the Encyclopaedic View of Oriental Science (by Joseph von Hammer, Leipsic, 1804), to which is prefixed an autobiography of Hadschi Chalfa. Besides this biographical work, and several other writings of Hadschi Chalfa, his chronological tables, beginning with Adam, and continuing to 1640, deserve to be particularly mentioned. The Latin translation of these, by Reiske, is still to be found in manuscript in the royal library at Copenhagen. In poetry, also, the Arabians and Persians are their models. Their poems are chiefly of a mystical or moral cast, or devoted to love. We need only mention the romantic poem of the Turk Molla Khosrew, Chosroes and Shereen. Some Turkish eclogues are contained in Hammer's Morgenländisches Kleeblatt (Eastern Trefoil, Vienna, 1819). Riddles, logogryphs, chronograms, and similar poetical trifles, are very popular among them. All their poetical productions are

in rhyme. Their prosody and the technical part of their poetry are the same as those of the Arabians and Persians. Mosnevi is a long poem, in which each distich has its peculiar rhyme; gazelles and cassides are odes or songs with a single rhyme; the rubaji (tetrastichon) is mostly epigrammatic; the kitaa has 4-8 strophes with various rhymes, and is applicable to all subjects. Accounts of Turkish poets, and specimens of their poetry, are contained in Latifi, or Biographical Sketches of eminent Turkish Poets, together with an Anthology drawn from their works; translated from the Turkish of Monka Abdul Latifi and Aschik Hassan Tschelebi, by Thomas Chabert (Zürich, 1808). The Divan of Baki, the principal lyric poet of Turkey, who died in 1600, has been translated into German, entire, by Joseph von Hammer (Vienna, 1825). In 1727, during the reign of Achmet III, Ibrahim, a renegade, a native of Buda, with the assistance of a Jew of Prague, Chacham Jonas, and under the patronage of the grand vizier, Ibrahiin Pacha, established a Turkish printing press at Constantinople, at which, in 1742, seventeen works, comprising twenty-three volumes, and 13,000 copies, had been printed. After a long interval of inaction, the press was again used, in 1783, during the reign of the sultan Abdolhamid. But its activity continued only about two years. In 1793, it was again brought into action by Abdorrhaman Effendi, a Turkish mathematician, who had rendered valuable services to the Porte, as commissioner for settling boundaries after the peace of Sistow. Abdorrhaman connected it with a school for teaching engineering at Chasskoi, a suburb of Constantinople. It remained there some years, and, at the beginning of the present century, was removed to the barracks of the new militia at Scutari. In 1806, twenty-six works had issued from this press. In the disturbances of 1807 and 1809, it suffered great damage, but was restored by the present sultan, Mahmoud II, in 1809. A complete catalogue of the books printed at Constantinople, down to 1813, has been given by Hammer, in the Leipsic Literary Journal, 1813, No. 42, 1814, No. 197 and 198, and 1820, page 307, and in Hormayr's Archives. See, also, Toderini's Turkish Literature (3 vols.); and Ludecke's Account of the Turkish Empire (3 parts). All books relating to theology and law were excluded from the press. The press at Constantinople has since pro

duced the Kamus (3 vols., fol.); the Mewahib, a metaphysical work, and, in 1824, the Arabian commentary of the Scheichsade (written under Mohammed IV), on the Arabic Moulteka, the famous Mohammedan religious code, composed by the sheik Ibrahim von Haleb, under Solyman the Great. The imperial historiographer, Jerome Megiser, published, at Vienna, the first Turkish grammar, in 1612. Afterwards the study of the Turkish language was much attended to, particularly at Vienna, as the intercourse between Austria and the Porte had become very considerable. Francis von Mesgnier Meninski, court interpreter, published the best Turkish grammar (Vienna, 1680), in Latin, folio, and likewise the best dictionary of the Turkish language. The first, with the addition of exercises in analysis and reading, was republished by Kollar (Vienna, 1756, 4to.): the last, likewise, much enlarged, by Jenisch, was republished at the expense of the emperor (Vienna, 1780-1803). There are Turkish grammars in the French language, in which the Turkish words are printed in Roman letters, by Preindl (Berlin, 1789, with a dictionary), and by Viguier (Constantinople, 1790-1794). The last grammar of the Turkish language was published by Jaubert (Paris, 1823). Many scholars, of much learning in Turkish literature have been formed at the Oriental academy in Vienna, established by the empress Maria Theresa, in 1753, for the education of young diplomatists to conduct the intercourse with the Porte; particularly Von Jenisch, Von Sturmer, Von Chabert and Von Hammer. The last has given a view of Turkish literature, in the appendix to the Codices Arabici, Persici, Turcici Bibl. Vindob. recens. (Vienna, 1820). Toderini, in his work upon Turkish literature, written in Italian (Venice, 1787, 3 vols.), Mouradgea d'Ohsson, Joseph Christ. Clodius, Goldermann, Von Diez and Von Hammer have also done much to furnish information concerning the Turkish language and literature.

Turkish Music. The Turks received their music from the Persians. It is rude, but much employed by them, especially in the expression of love or warlike excitement. But public exhibitions of musical skill for money they consider as disgraceful. The chief instruments in their warlike music are hautboys, trumpets of a piercing sound, cymbals, small drums of various kinds, and the bass drum ; but small flutes, triangles and bells, such as the Europeans use in what they call

should be supported by a steady bar, or a piece called the rest. A great number of turned articles either have, or will admit of a perforation through their axis. All wheel-work, and most of the articles turned in wood, are of this description. Clock and watch-makers accordingly use a very cheap, simple and portable lathe, called a turn-bench, consisting of a straight bar of iron, about five inches long, with two cross bars or heads, about two inches long, one fixed at the end of the long bar, and the other capable of being shifted by means of a socket and screw. In each of these heads is a centre-pin, terminating in a point at one end, and in a central hole at the other, like the centre-pin in the poppet-head of any other lathe; the use of which is to afford point-centres when the points are turned towards each other, or hole-centres when the contrary is the case; and lastly, there is a small rest, with its support, slidable and adjustable along the bar, as in another lathe. These instruments will therefore support any piece of four or five inches long, and three inches diameter, between the centres; and the method of producing the rotation is by passing the catgut string of a bow once or twice round the work, and drawing the bow backwards and forwards with one hand, while the other is employed in applying the tool. The turnbench itself is held steady in a vice fixed to a bench or stand. The common lathe of the turners in wood, called the polelathe, is the same thing as the watchmaker's turn-bench, but upon a large scale, and a little varied. Instead of the horizontal bar, it has two long stout bars of wood, called shears, forming what is called the bed of the lathe, and its two poppetheads are upright blocks of wood, mortised in between the shears, above which they rise and carry the centre-screws, and between which they are movable, and may be wedged firmly at any required distance from each other. The work itself is either put between the centres, or upon a wooden mandrel, and is made to revolve by a string or band, proceeding from a long spinning pole at the ceiling or roof of the shop, round the work, and thence to a treadle or foot-board, which acts by alternate pressure from the foot, while the workman applies the cutting tool with his hands. In these, and all similar lathes, the rotation is made backwards and forwards; and there are some kinds of work in which such a motion is advantageous; but in general it is much preferable that the work should constantly

revolve the same way as in the lathe usually known by the name of the foot-lathe. The stronger, the firmer, and the better the workmanship of a lathe, the easier it will be to perform work with expedition and truth; but a good workman will make true and excellent work with a very indifferent lathe, by taking care to cut so little at a time, that the parts of the engine may never be shaken out of their contact. Metallic lathes, if ever so strong, have an elastic tremor, which makes it difficult to cut brass and bell-metal as firmly and smoothly as in wooden lathes; but the structure of the former admits of greater precision and truth. The velocity of rotation may be extremely swift in wood, slower in brass and bell-metal, still slower in cast-iron, and slowest of all in forged iron or steel. The reason for these limits appears to be, that a certain time is requisite for the act of cutting to take place, and that the tool itself, if heated by rotation, will instantly become soft, and cease to cut. Steel and iron require to be kept wetted. Hitherto we have spoken of plain turning, which is indeed the most useful and most universally practised. But many other nice and very curious operations are performed by this art. If the poppet-heads, supporting the mandrel, be made regularly to move from side to side, during the rotation, or the rest be made to approach to, and recede from, the work, any number of times in a turn, the cuts will not be circular, but undulating, indented or waved in any curve that may be required. Work of this kind, which is chiefly done on watchcases, snuff-boxes and trinkets, is called rose-work. The motion is commonly regulated by certain round plates of brass fixed on the mandrel, called roves, which have their edges waved, and are called roses. The act of turning is so extensively applicable, that it would require a volume to describe its uses, and the methods of practising it. The largest columns, the most ponderous artillery, and the minutest pivots of watch-work, with all wheel-work, rotatory machines, vessels, &c., are worked in this method.

TURNIP. (See Appendix, end of this vol.) TURNPIKE; a gate set up across a road, watched by an officer for the purpose, in order to stop travellers, wagons, coaches, &c., to take toll of them. In the U. States, turnpike roads are often called turnpikes, just as mail-coach, hackney-coach, stagecoach, are shortened to mail, hack and stage.

TURNSPIT. (See Appendix to this vol.)
TURPENTINE is a resinous juice extract-

ed from several trees belonging to the genus pinus. The common American turpentine comes from the pinus palustris, which grows abundantly in the Southern States. English turpentine is from the Scotch fir (P. sylvestris). Venice turpentine, which is more thin and aromatic, is from the pinus larix. Strasburgh turpentine is from the pinus picea. All these kinds of turpentine, and many others, known in commerce, are obtained by exudation and hardening of the juice flowing from incisions into the pine trees, To obtain the oil of turpentine, the juice is distilled in an apparatus like the common still; water is placed with the turpentine, and the residuum and product exceed the original weight: 250 pounds of good turpentine produce 60 pounds of the oil. Sixteen ounces of Venice turpentine, being distilled with water, yielded four ounces three drams of oil of turpentine; and the same quantity distilled without water, yielded, with the heat of a water bath, two ounces only. When turpentine is distilled, or boiled with water till it becomes solid, it appears yellowish; when the process is farther continued, it acquires a reddish-brown color. The oil of turpentine, called also spirit of turpentine, cannot without singular difficulty be dissolved in alcohol, though turpentine itself is easily soluble in that spirit. One part of the oil may be dissolved in seven parts of alcohol; but on standing, the oil chiefly separates, and falls to the bottom.

TURPIN, archbishop of Rheims, to which see he was probably raised about 753, died at the beginning of the ninth century.

He encouraged literature by procuring books to be copied, and enriched the library of his church, for which he procured from Charlemagne many privileges. His name has escaped oblivion in consequence of its having been prefixed to the romantic history of Charlemagne and Roland, one of the grand sources of the tales of chivalry of the middle ages. (See Romance.) From internal evidence it appears that this mass of fable was compiled in the eleventh century, and was translated from Latin into French in 1206 and 1207, by a clerk dependent on Renaud, count of Boulogne. A more recent version was published by Robert Gaguin, in the beginning of the sixteenth century. The original first appeared in the historical collection of Schardius, Frankfort on the Maine (1566, folio); and Ciampi printed (Florence, 1822, 8vo.) an edition of the work, with a preliminary dissertation.

TURQUOISE, Or CALAITE, is a mineral found only massive, having an impalpable composition and a conchoidal fracture; color blue, or green, often bright; feebly translucent on the edges, or opaque; hardness that of feldspar; specific gravity 2.83 to 3.00. It is not dissolved by muriatic acid. Before the blow-pipe, it becomes brown in the reducing flame, and gives a green color to it. It is infusible by itself, but very easily so with borax or salt of phosphorus. According to Berzelius, it consists of phosphate of alumine and lime, silex, oxide of iron and copper, and a little water. It is found in Persia, either in pebbles, or in small veins, in its original repository, traversing a kind of trap. Cut and polished, it is used for ornamental purposes. It is commonly cut in oval. A piece of fine color, five lines by four and a half, is valued at about forty-five dollars. TURTLE. (See Tortoise.)

TURTLE DOVE. (See Appendix.)

TUSCALOOSA, the metropolis of the state of Alabama, is situated at the falls on the Black Warrior, near the centre of the state, 320 miles above Mobile, 160 south-west of Huntsville. The name of this town is the Choctaw word for Black Warrior. The first settlement was made here in 1816-17. In 1821, it contained about 700 inhabitants, and in 1830, 1600. It is the capital of Tuscaloosa county, and contains the state and county buildings, and the usual variety of dwelling-houses, shops and offices, that are found in the new and flourishing towns of the south and west. The temporary log buildings first erected here have not wholly disappeared. Tuscaloosa is 858 miles from the city of Washington, and stands in lat. 33° 12 N., lon. 87° 42′ W.

TUSCAN ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. (See Architecture, vol. i, page 341.)

TUSCANY (Toscana); a grand duchy of Central Italy, bounded north by Modena and the States of the Church, east by the States of the Church, and south-west by a part of the Mediterranean called the Tuscan or Tyrrhenean sea. It includes Elba and some smaller islands; is divided into three provinces, Florence, Pisa and Sienna; chief towns, Florence (q. v.), the capital, Leghorn (q. v.), the chief seaport, Sienna, Pisa, Arezzo, Cortona, and Piombino; square miles, 8390; population, 1,300,530. The face of the country is agreeably diversified with hills, valleys and plains. The Apennines, entering on the north, traverse the country in a southeast direction. In Tuscany, their highest summits do not exceed 3000 feet, some