persons spoken to. It should always, however, be the natural product of a man's own mind; and when thoughts are fully matured, they can be easily expressed by one who has the riches of a cultivated language at his command. A style of expression which betrays the effect of imitation is always disagreeable; and the more so the more perfect is the imitation. It is body without spirit, the covering of the pupa without the butterfly within. The study of the style of others can be of advantage only as it shows the connexion between their thoughts and their manner of expression. The first requisite of a good style is clear and independent thought. Some have even considered it the only thing necessary; but this is going too far. There is a certain mechanical skill required, to find the best expression of a thought in a language which is the common means of communication among millions of people, all differing in character and circumstances; and it would be mere loss of time for every one to attempt to acquire this by his own experience, for which he may not have a good opportunity; but, unless it is acquired, even the most highly gifted intellects can produce but an imperfect effect. This circumstance, that we speak and write for others; that our expression, as far as regards ourselves, is the effect of thought, whilst, as respects others, it is intended to become the cause of thought, -is, perhaps, the chief reason for studying style. Still, however, we must repeat, that the most important means for becoming clear to others, is to be clear to ourselves. To excel in writing or speaking, as to excel in music, painting, architecture, mathematics, &c., original talent is the first thing necessary; yet study is indispensable, and without it, hardly any progress could be made in the various branches of human activity. The collected experience of many furnishes principles for a theory of style as well as of every art; but this theory will be of advantage only to him who has the main requisites of clear and just thought. One of the best general rules of style is to be as brief as perspicuity allows; though there are some exceptions, particularly in the case of public speaking, in which it is often necessary to dwell long on important ideas, in order to afford the hearer time to comprehend them fully. In writing, there are very few exceptions to the rule. Logical correctness of thought, though essential to a good style, does not need to be particularly treated of in dis

cussing the theory of style. It falls properly under the head of a disquisition on logic. Beauty of style consists in harmonious expression, an easy flow, and a happy connexion of ideas; in the avoidance of every thing which can offend good taste and decorum; in the use of imagery fitted to strike and gratify the imagination, &c. The two chief branches of style are those of prose and poetry. (See these articles.) The ancient rhetoricians speak of a genus dicendi tenue, medium, et sublime, or a lower, middle, and higher style. No work, however, necessarily falls, from beginning to end, under either of these heads. Style must sink or rise with the thoughts and feelings expressed. The various relations of life, and the various modes and subjects of communication, render the division of prose into various kinds of style necessary. Thus we have the didactic style, the style of business, the epistolary, the historical style, and the various oratorical styles. Style began early to be cultivated. Among the Greeks, who, however, confined themselves almost entirely to oratorical expression, Aristotle, Demetrius Phalereus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Hermogenes, and Longinus; among the Romans, Cicero and Quinctilian, are the principal writers on style.

STYLE, in the arts. Style, or mode of representation, in the arts, depends on the character of the artist, the subjects, the art itself, the materials used, the object aimed at, &c. The style varies in different periods: thus we have the anteGreek, or old Oriental style, in which the powerful and colossal prevails; the classical or antique style of the Greeks and Romans (see Antique), and the style of Christian art (the romantic or modern style). It is influenced by differences of national character. Thus we have a German, Italian, French, and English style or school. The effect of the national character is particularly apparent in certain arts, e. g. painting or music. The national style also has its periods; at one time aims particularly at the sublime or great, at other times strives after the beautiful, the pleasing and graceful; as Winckelmann has observed in respect to the Greek plastic art. The style varies, too, with the character of the individual. Here we must distinguish between the style which proceeds from the nature of the subjects to which the genius of the artist inclines him, and his mode of representing those subjects. The latter is called more particularly manner. The manner

of an artist may be noble or petty, strong or weak; but it is always uniform, and in a certain degree arbitrary, while the style, in its proper sense, is not. The style of great artists continues in their schools, and there usually degenerates into manner. The word style is also applied to the different modes of representation, occasioned by the different nature of the various arts: thus there is an architectural, a plastic, a picturesque style. The various branches of an art, too, have each its peculiar style; e. g. in poetry, there are the epic, lyric, dramatic styles; in music, the sacred, opera, concert styles, the vocal and instrumental styles, the quartetto, sonata, symphony styles, &c.; in painting, there are the historical, landscape, &c. styles.

STYLE, OLD and NEW. (See Calendar, and Epoch.)

STYLES OF ARCHITECTURE. chitecture, vol. i, page 339.)

(See Ar

STYLITES (from orúλos, column; in Latin, sancti columnares). The most singular saints of the Christian church were anchorites (q. v.), who, by way of penance, passed the greater part of their lives on the top of high columns. Simeon, a Syrian monk, of the fifth century, invented this insane method of self-torture, about 423. He lived, for nine years, on a column, the top of which was only two ells in circumference, in the open air, near Antioch, afterwards changed it for a higher one, and at length for one forty cubits, and only three feet in diameter at top; when he slept, he leaned against a sort of balustrade. On this pillar he remained twentyeight years, till his death, in 459 or 460. The whole time which he passed on the top of pillars, was about thirty-seven years. It appears, however, that he must have descended at times, since he cured the sick by his touch, and performed sundry other miracles; wrote epistles, and took part in political quarrels. The example of this strange being, who was canonized after his death, was imitated by many persons in Syria and Palestine; and the mania continued until the 12th century. The Dictionnaire de Théologie, a modern Catholic work, chiefly in defence of the Roman church, has a long article Stylite, vindicating St. Simeon, as an instrument in the hands of the Creator, for the conversion of the heathen. "Shall we refuse to God," says the writer, "the liberty of attaching the grace of conversion to such means as he may choose?" The article also relates the miracles of St. Simeon.

STYMPHALIDES, in mythology; certain birds of prey, which derived their name from the town or the lake of Stymphalus, in Arcadia, near which they lived; or from an ancient hero Stymphalus, whose daughters they were considered to be. They were large birds, with iron wings, beaks and claws, of the size of cranes, in form similar to the ibis, but having straight beaks. They could shoot their feathers like arrows, and thus kill men and beasts. (See Argonauts.) Eurystheus imposed on Hercules the task of driving them from the place of their abode, in which he succeeded.

STYMPHALUS. (See Stymphalides.

STYPTIC; a remedy that has the virtue of stopping blood, or of closing the aperture of a wounded vessel. Many waters and powders are of this nature; but in most of them vitriol is the chief ingredient.

STYRIA. (See Stiria.)

STYX; a nymph, according to Hesiod, the daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, according to others, of Erebus and Night. By Pallas, she became the mother of Zelos and Cratos, Nike and Bia (Zeal, Power, Victory and Strength); according to Pausanias, she bore the Hydra to a certain Piras; and, according to Apollodorus, Proserpine to Jupiter. Her children, by Pallas (according to Hesiod), enjoyed the honor of living with Jupiter, and of being inseparably connected with him, because they and their mother assisted him in the war with the Titans. In honor of Styx herself, it was provided, that the gods should swear by her. According to another passage of Hesiod, Styx lived with her children in the region of Tartarus, in a palace of rocks, separated from the dwellings of the other deities residing there, or in a grotto resting on columns. From this rock issued a cold stream, which flowed far under the earth unseen. It was the tenth arm of Ocean. Nine of them flowed around the earth, and the sea, and then emptied into the tenth, which (the Styx) descended to the lower regions, where it formed the celebrated Stygian pool. By this the gods swore; and if any god violated his oath, he was banished from Olympus, stretched out lifeless, and became overgrown witl mould. In this state he remained a year; after which, he suffered other torments for nine years, and, during this period, was excluded from the society of the gods. Styx was originally a rivulet in Arcadia, springing from a high rock, near the town of Nonacris. Its water was considered poisonous to men and beasts metals

were corroded, and vessels burst to pieces by it.

SUABIA, OF SWABIA (in German, Schwaben); one of the ten circles into which the German empire was divided, previous to its dissolution in 1806. It lay in the southwestern part of Germany, comprising some of the most fertile and beautiful parts of the country, traversed from south-west to north-east by the Danube. The Black Forest (q. v.), or Schwarzwald, intersects the western part of the country, and the Suabian Alps (see Alps, Suabian) stretch through the interior. The circle of Suabia, comprising 13,150 square miles, with 2,200,000 inhabitants, was surrounded by France, Switzerland, the Austrian territories, Bavaria, Franconia, and the circles of the Rhine. The soil is fertile, the face of the country mountainous. The circle comprised the sovereign bishoprics of Augsburg and Constance, the princely provostship of Elwangen, and the princely abbey of Kempten; the abbeys of Salmansweiler, Weingarten, Ochsenhausen, Elchingen, Irsee, Ursperg, Kaisersheim, Roggenburg, Roth, Weissenau, Schussenried, Marchthal, Petershausen, Wettenhausen, Zweifalten and Gengenbach, Neresheim, Heggbach, Guttenzell, Rothmünster, Baindt, Söflingen, Isni, Lindau and Buchau; the duchy of Würtemberg; the margraviate of Baden; the principalities of Hohenzollern and Lichtenstein; the landgraviates of Klettgau, Stühlingen and Baar; the Teutonic commandery of Alschhausen; the counties (grafschaft) of Thengen, Heiligenberg, Ettingen, Friedberg-Scheer, Königsegg, Eberstein, Hohenems, Bondorf, Hohengeroldseck; the lands of the counts Fugger; the county and lordships of Truchsess of Waldburg; the lordships of Trochtelfingen, Jungnau, Wiesensteig, Hausen, Möskirch, Tetnang, with Argen, Mindelheim, Schwabeck, Gundelfingen, Justingen, Eglof, Tannhausen and Burg, with Neusickingen, and the thirty-one imperial free cities of Augsburg, Ulm, Esslingen, Reutlingen, Nordlingen, Hall, Ueberlingen, Rotweil, Heilbronu, Gemünd, Memmingen, Lindau, Dünkelsbühl, Biberach, Ravensburg, Kempten, Kaufbeuern, Weil, Wangen, Isny, Leutkirch, Wimpfen, Giengen, Pfullendorf, Buchhorn, Aalen, Bopfingen, Buchau, Offenburg, Gengenbach, Zell on the Hammersbach. these numerous sovereignties, the possessions of the Würtemberg, Baden and Fürstenberg houses were the most extensive. Würtemberg, Baden, the two Hohenzollern lines, and Lichtenstein, are the 4

VOL. XII.

Of

only ones that have not been mediatized. (See Mediatization.) The diets of the circle were commonly held at Ulm, and in time of peace twice a year. Austrian Suabia was composed of the hereditary states of the house of Hapsburg, comprising Burgau, Nellenburg, the prefectorate of Suabia, Hohenberg, the Brisgau, Ortenau, and some towns and convents, containing in all a population of about 170,000; but these have been renounced or exchanged. The kingdom of Würtemberg and the grand duchy of Baden comprise at present the greater part of Suabia. The kingdom of Bavaria includes a part on the east side; and other portions are subject to the princes of Hohenzollern and Lichtenstein. (See Pfister's History of Suabia, and Leichtlen's Suabia under the Romans (both in German). (See also our articles Germany, and Hohenstaufen.)} SUABIAN ALPS. (See Alps, Suabian.) SUABIAN POETS. (See Minnesingers.) SUADA, OF SUADELA; with the Greeks, Peitho, the goddess of persuasion, whose worship Theseus is said to have estab lished at Athens, in memory of the union of the scattered population of Attica into one state. A statue of this goddess, made by Praxiteles, stood in Athens, in the temple of Aphrodite (Venus). She was represented as belonging, with the Graces, to the company of Venus. Some make Suada herself one of the Graces.

SUARD, Jean Baptiste Anthony, a French miscellaneous writer, born at Besançon, in 1733, was the editor of the Journal de Paris. During the revolution, he conducted a publication entitled Nouvelles Politiques, which, professing to oppose democracy, was suppressed, and he was forced to quit France. When Bonaparte was first consul, he returned, and became member of the legion of honor, and of the national institute, and perpetual secretary of the class of French literature. He then established a journal called the Publiciste, which was soon given up for the Archives Littéraires, and the Opuscules Philosophiques. Suard was familiar with English literature, and translated Robertson's Charles V, and History of America, with several other English works. Many of the notices of Englishmen in the Biographie Universelle are from his pen. See Garat's Mémoires historiques sur Suard (1820). He died at Paris in 1817.

SUBHASTATIO, in the civil law, is the public sale of immovable property, to the highest bidder, as auction, in that law, is the sale of mobilia, or personal property. The jus primi liciti in some countries, al

lows the first bidder at an auction sale to take the article at the highest price hid; but he must declare his intention before the hammer falls. The name subhastatio originated from the Roman usage of planting a spear (hasta) on the spot where a public sale was to take place.

SUBJECT, in philosophy. (See Object.) In ethics, subject often designates a free agent, in contradistinction to things inanimate. In music, the theme of a fugue is called subject. In politics, all the people who owe allegiance to a monarch, have been heretofore called the monarch's subjects, even when his authority rested on a contract with the people, and his power was limited. But the French seem un willing to allow this name to be applied to them since the revolution of 1830. The use of the word in this application, by the minister Montalivet, in the session of January 4, 1832, caused much excitement in the chamber of deputies, and ministers have since avoided it. Those persons who are under the sway of a republic, without participating in all the rights of those in whom the sovereignty rests, are also called subjects. Thus Hamburg calls the inhabitants of Ritzebüttel subjects.

SUBJECTIVE, and SUBJECTIVITY. (See Objeci.

SUBLIMATE, CORROSIVE. (See Mercury, vol. viii, p. 421.)

SUBLIMATION; a process by which volatile substances are raised by heat, and again condensed in a solid form. This chemical process differs from evaporation only in being confined to solid substances. It is usually performed either for the purpose of purifying certain substances, and disengaging them from extraneous matters, or else to reduce them into vapor, and combine them under that form. As all fluids are volatilized by heat, and consequently capable of being separated, in most cases, from fixed matters, so various solid bodies are subjected to a similar treatment. Fluids are said to distil, and solids to sublime, though sometimes both are obtained in one and the same operation. If the subliming matter concretes into a solid, hard mass, it is commonly called a sublimate; if into a powdery form, flowers. The principal subjects of this operation are, volatile alkaline salts; neutral salts, composed of volatile alkali and acids, as sal ammoniac; the salt of amber, and flowers of benzoin, mercurial preparations, and sulphur. Bodies of themselves not volatile, are frequently made to sublime by the mixture

of volatile ones; thus iron is carried over by sal ammoniac, in the preparation of the flores martiales, or ferrum ammoniatum. The fumes of solid bodies in close vessels rise but a little way, and adhere to that part of the vessel where they concrete. SUBLIME PORTE. (See Turkey.) SUBORNATION

Perjury.)

OF PERJURY. (See

SUBSIDIES. With the Romans, the third line of troops (corps de reserve), which, in case of necessity, assisted the two first, was called subsidium. Hence subsidiary is used in the sense of auxiliary. The substantive subsidy is used to denote the pecuniary assistance afforded, according to treaty, by one government to another, sometimes to secure its neutrality, but more frequently in consideration of its furnishing a certain number of troops. Subsidies, or supplies, in England, also denotes the money granted by parliament to the government.

SUBSTANCE (substantia), in a philosophical sense, is contradistinguished to accident, and signifies that which exists independently and unchangeably; whilst accident denotes the changeable phenomena in substance, whether these phenomena are necessary or casual, in which latter case they are called accidents, in a narrower sense. The relation of accident to substance is called the relation of inherence, and corresponds to the logical relation of subject and predicate; because the substance is the subject, to which are assigned the qualities, states and relations as predicates: substance itself is the essence, which is capable of these phenomena, and, in spite of these changes, remains the same. Some schoolmen gave the name of substance to that in which exists our ideal of perfection; others to a thing which exists through itself and for itself. Leibnitz calls substance that which contains in itself the cause of its changes. In natural science and in common life, substance is used to designate material beings, especially simple, inorganic bodies, and the fundamental constituents of organic bodies; e. g. a liquid substance. But every substance which falls within the scope of our observation, if we understand by substance that which is unchangeable in its phenomena, is only a relative one; i. e. is such only in respect to some others, and is not unconditionally independent, but must be conceived dependent upon one original cause of things. In contradistinction to the relative substance, therefore, we speak of absolute substance, as the one original

essence of all things; and the relation of the latter to the former has been variously considered. Spinoza has treated particularly of the one absolute substance, and given to it infinite thought and infinite extension as inseparable attributes.

SUBSTANTIVE. (See Noun.) SUBSTITUTION, in the civil law, is the appointment of an heir to succeed in case of the failure of one previously appointed. If the second person is to succeed in case of the death of the first, or of his not accepting the inheritance, the substitution is called direct, if the first heir is bound to convey the inheritance to the substitute or second heir. This is a fideicommissary substitution. (See Fidei Commissa.) The former kind comprises the vulgar substitution, which is merely the appointment of a second heir in case the first should not inherit, and the pupillary substitution, which is the appointment of an heir, by a father or grandfather, in the name of a minor child, over whom he has paternal power, in case the latter should die a minor. The inother cannot make a pupillary substitution. The latter ceases, 1. by the death of the minor in question before the death of the testator; 2. by his arriving at full age; 3. by the paternal appointment failing to take effect; 4. by the withdrawing of the minor from the paternal power. The quasi pupillary substitution (substitutio exemplaris) is the appointment of an heir by parents for an idiot child, in case the child should die in a state of idiocy. If the child has lucid intervals, the parents are not allowed to make such substitution; otherwise, even the mother may do it.

SUBTANGENT OF A CURVE, in the higher geometry, is the line which determines the intersection of the tangent with the axis, or that determines the point where the tangent cuts the axis prolonged.

SUBTENSE, in geometry; the same with the chord of an arch.

SUCCESSION POWDER. (See Poudre de Succession.)

SUCCINIC ACID; an acid derived from the distillation of amber. By adding one twelfth part of sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water, the yield of acid is much increased. The acid, being dissolved in hot water, and filtered, is to be saturated with potash or soda, and boiled with charcoal. The solution being filtered, nitrate of lead is added; whence results an insoluble succinate of lead; from which, by digestion in the equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid, pure succinic acid is separated. It is in white trans

parent crystals, which possess a sharp taste, and powerfully redden tincture of turnsole. It is soluble in both alcohol and water. It forms salts with the alkalies and oxides. The succinates of potash and ammonia are crystallizable and deliquescent. That of soda does not attract moisture. The succinate of ammonia is useful in analysis to separate oxide of iron.

SUCCORY. (See Endive.)

SUCHET, Louis Gabriel, duke of Albufera, marshal of France, born at Lyons in 1770, entered the military service at an early age (1790), and passed rapidly through the inferior ranks. In 1796, he was attached to the army of Italy, and attracted the notice of general Bonaparte, by his courage, boldness and caution. He then served with distinction under Masséna and Joubert, and was one of the most active and successful of Napoleon's generals in the campaigns of 1805 and 1806. In 1808, he received the command of a division in Spain, and was almost constantly victorious till after the battle of Vittoria. His brilliant services in that country obtained him the marshal's staff, and the title of duke. After the restoration, Suchet was created peer of France. Having accepted, under Napoleon, a command during the hundred days, he was deprived of his seat on the second restoration, but readmitted in 1819. He died in 1826.

SUCKING FISH. (See Echeneis.)

SUCKLING, sir John, a wit, courtier, and dramatist, son of a knight of the same name, was born in 1613, at Witham, in Middlesex. He is said to have spoken Latin fluently at five years old, and written it with ease and elegance at nine. After lingering some time about the court, he was despatched upon his travels, and served a campaign under the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, in the course of which he was present at three battles and several sieges. At the time of the Scotch war, sir John raised a troop of horse for the king's service, who behaved so badly in the field as to disgrace both themselves and their commander. An abortive attempt to effect the escape of the earl of Strafford, confined in the Tower under articles of impeachment from the commons, implicated sir John so seriously, that he thought it advisable to retire to France, where he died in 1641. His writings consist of letters written with ease and spirit; some miscellaneous poems; Aglaura, a play; Brennoralt, a tragedy; the Sad One, a