properly opposed to the immanent. Immanent principles are those the application of which is confined entirely within the limits of possible experience. "I call all knowledge transcendental," says Kant, in the Critique of pure Reason, "which occupies itself not so much with objects as with the way of knowing these objects, as far as this is possible a priori. A system of such notions would be called transcendental philosophy, and would be the system of all the principles of pure reason;" or, as he says in another passage, "the philosophy of the pure, merely speculative reason, from which the practical is separated." Accordingly, metaphysics, in particular, has received the name of transcendental philosophy. But, in another passage, he distinguishes the metaphysical from the transcendental. The former presents notions as obtained a priori; the latter explains the principles from which the possibility of other synthetic knowledge can be understood a priori.-In mathematics, transcendental or transcendent lines, are those curves the nature of which cannot be explained by algebraic equations. Descartes called them mechanical lines, and refused them a place in mathematics; but Leibnitz received them again, inventing a peculiar kind of equations, by which their nature is as well explained as that of algebraic

curves.

TRANSEPT. (See Architecture, vol. i, p. 343.)

TRANSFERRING. The following is the mode of transferring lithographic prints or copperplate engravings from paper to wood. The print is first placed in a vessel of water, until it is completely saturated, which will be about five or ten minutes, and then placed between blotting paper, to remove the superabundant water from its surface. It is then varnished by a brush, and applied immediately to the wood, which has been previously varnished, and allowed to dry. The print thus applied may be subjected to the pressure necessary to effect its complete adhesion, by spreading over it a sheet of paper, and rubbing this with the hand. The

paper on which the print was made may then be peeled off by rubbing it cautiously with the moistened fingers, and, when wholly removed, a coat of varnish must be applied to the print. When colored prints are to be transferred, an acid solution must be used instead of water, to destroy the size which exists in the paper. This solution may be composed of two thirds of vinegar and one third of water,

and is to be applied only to the back of the print. If the article is to be polished, apply several coats of varnish, allowing each to dry before the application of another; and then rub the surface with a piece of woollen cloth and pumice stone reduced to impalpable powder. When the surface becomes smooth, the process may be continued with a fine cloth and the finest tripoli, with olive-oil.

TRANSFIGURATION, in the language of the church; the glorification of Christ on mount Tabor, in memory of which the Roman Catholic church celebrates a feast of the first rank on Aug. 6, which seems to have been established as late as the twelfth century. Pope Calixtus III, in 1456, attached to this many indulgences, in memory of a victory gained over the Turks. One of the most beautiful pictures of Raphael is known under this name. It is in the Vatican. Dorigny and Morghen have given fine engravings of it.

TRANSFUSION (transfusio, from transfundo, to pour from one vessel into another); the transmission of blood from one living animal to another. Harvey was thirty years before he could get his discovery admitted; but, as soon as the circulation was acknowledged, people's minds were seized with a sort of delirium: it was thought that the means of curing all diseases was found, and even of rendering man immortal. The cause of all our evils was attributed to the blood: in order to cure them, nothing more was necessary but to remove the bad blood, and to replace it by pure blood, drawn from a sound animal. The first attempts were made upon animals, with complete success. A dog, having lost a great part of its blood, received, by transfusion, that of a sheep, and became well. Another dog, old and deaf, regained, by this means, the use of hearing, and seemed to recover its youth. A horse of twenty-six years, having received in his veins the blood of four lambs, recovered his strength. Transfusion was soon attempted upon man. Denys and Emerez, the one a physician, the other a surgeon of Paris, were the first who ventured to try it. They introduced into the veins of a young man, an idiot, the blood of a calf, in greater quantity than that which had been drawn from them, and he appeared to recover his reason. A leprous person, and a quartan ague, were also cured by this means; and several other transfusions were made upon healthy persons without any disagreeable result. However, some sad events happened to calm the general

enthusiasm caused by these repeated successes. The young idiot we mentioned fell into a state of madness a short time after the experiment. He was submitted a second time to the transfusion, and was immediately seized with a hæmaturia, and died in a state of sleepiness and torpor. A young prince of the blood royal was also the victim of it. The parliament of Paris prohibited transfusion. A short time after, G. Riva having, in Italy, performed the transfusion upon two individuals, who died of it, the pope prohibited it also. From this period, transfusion has been regarded as useless, and even dangerous.

TRANSIT, in astronomy. By a transit over the disk of the sun, we understand the phenomenon which occurs when Venus or Mercury, in their revolution round the sun, pass between the sun and the eye of the observer on this earth, and appear to move like black spots over the sun's disk, their illuminated portion being the side turned from the spectator. If this phenomenon is observed by different persons at points considerably distant from each other, it will not be of equal duration at all of these points; and, as the differences of time depend on the parallax (q.v.) of the planet as well as the sun, the former will enable us to determine the latter. The transits of Venus are particularly suited to this purpose. Such a transit of Venus over the sun's disk, accompanied with very favorable circumstances, occurred last, June 3, 1769, and forms an epoch in the history of astronomy. The royal society of London had it observed at Hudson's bay and Otaheite; the French court, by Chappe, in California; the Danish, by Hell, at Wardhus, in Lapland; the Swedish, by Planmann, at Kajaneborg, in Finland; and, by these five observations, the sun's parallax, which is one of the most important elements of astronomy, was determined with great exactness. The next transits of Venus fall in the years 1872 and 1884.See the ninth book of Lalande's Astronomy; the Mémoire sur le Passage de Vénus (Paris, 1772, 4to.); Bode's Abhandlung vom Durchgang der Venus (Hamburg, 1769). A good general view of the subject may be found in Lalande's Abrégé d'Astronomie (Paris, 1795, p. 264 seq.).

TRANSIT TRADE; such as arises from the passage of goods through one country on their way to another. It is sometimes of great importance, as, for instance, when most of the commodities of the East which were consuined in the north of

Europe passed through Germany. The transit trade leaves the commission, and other expenses attending the forwarding of the goods, in the country through which they pass; besides which they sometimes also pay a duty. TRANSITION FORMATIONS. (See Geology.) TRANSMIGRATION OF THE SOUL. The doctrine of the passage of the soul from one body into another has its foundation in the belief of the connexion of all living beings, and of the gradual purification of the spiritual part of man, and its return to the common source and origin of all things-God. The earthly life, according to this system, is only a point in the succession of states through which the soul, proceeding from God, has to pass, in order, at last, to return to its original source. Even some modern European writers have inclined to the doctrine of transmigration, as enabling the soul in one condition to supply the deficiencies of another, and to fit itself better for a more perfect state. Pious and reflecting men, for example, Herder, have thought that many reasons were to be found for a belief in such a transmigration, which is also taught in the Talmud. Faint images of divine magnificence once witnessed in a higher state, and revived in the soul, by the view of the true, the good and the beautiful, which are met with in this life, and which fill the spirit with admiration and delight, are thought to be presentiments of those feelings which will again be awakened in us, when we return to the original source of all truth, goodness and beauty. The religion of the ancient people of India, in which the first traces of a belief in a transmigration of the sou are found, considers it partly as the course of destiny, partly as a punishment for the neglect of religious duties, in consequence of which the soul is made to pass, after death, through the bodies of various animals, by way of penance and purification. With this doctrine is connected the regard which the Indians have for animals. From the Indians, this belief passed into the secret doctrine of the Egyptian caste of priests, who believed that the soul had to continue 3000 years, after death, in the bodies of animals, before it could reach the habitations of the blessed. From them the Greeks received the doctrine, and termed it metempsychosis (change of soul), and metensomatosis (change of body). (See Metempsychosis.) Pythagoras (q. v.) adopted it into his philosophy, as indicating the immortality of

the human soul. The later Pythagoreans taught that the mind, freed from the fetters of the body, will enter the realm of the departed, there remain in an intermediate state for a longer or shorter time, and again animate other human or animal bodies, until the time of its purification is finished, and its return to the Fountain of life has become possible. The mind of Pythagoras himself was conceived to have been already four times on earth. The stories of these Pythagorean notions rest on comparatively late reports. The Greek mysteries enveloped the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul in agreeable mythuses, which represent Dionysos or Bacchus as the lord and leader of the soul. In these, also, the belief in a preexistence is to be discovered. For this esoteric doctrine distinguishes souls, which, according to the organization of the universe, are driven from their former ethereal or heavenly life down to the earth, to appear for the first time as men, from the souls in a state of penance, which were obliged to enter a human body a second and third time; and also from those souls which voluntarily come to the earth from curiosity, or delight in individuality. The Greek poets and philosophers have given various forms to these mythuses. Pindar, the Pythagorean, lets the soul arrive at the isles of the blessed after passing three unblemished lives on this earth. Plato extends the period for the entire return of souls into the Godhead to 10,000 years, during which they have to abide in the bodies of animals and men. Plotinus treats of two kinds of transmigrations, a passage of souls from invisible, ethereal bodies into earthly ones, and from earthly into other earthly bodies. Among the Romans, Cicero and Virgil have alluded to this doctrine. The rabbins treat the subject of transmigration in their peculiar way, maintaining that God created but a certain number of Jewish souls, which therefore constantly return on earth as long as Jews are to be found here, and are sometimes made to dwell in the bodies of animals for the sake of penance, but, at the day of the resurrection, will all be purified, and in the bodies of the just revive on the soil of the promised land. The Christian sect of the Manichæans (q. v.) also considered the transmigration of the soul as a means of penance. This belief was widely diffused. It existed among the ancient Italians, the Celtic Druids, the Scythians and Hyperboreans, and is still entertained by the heathen nations of Eastern Asia, the Caucasian

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tribes, the American savages, and African negroes. With the ancient Egyptians, it led, as it still does with the Hindoos, to! the veneration of certain animals, and the fear of eating their flesh, since their bodies may be the abode of departed ancestors or friends. The Pythagoreans would not kill animals, for the same reason. This belief in the transmigration of the soul, as a means of purification and penance, may have been attended with good consequences in certain states of society; but the Christian is content to leave undrawn the veil which the Creator has placed over the particular circumstances of our future condition. Whatever may be the means for purifying and perfecting the human soul after death, the Christian rests assured that a life passed according to the commands of God will fit the soul to enjoy his presence; and that a life passed in the neglect of his commands will lead to future misery.

TRANSOMS; certain beams or timbers extended across the sternpost of a ship, to fortify her after-part, and give it the figure most suitable to the service for which she is calculated.

The

TRANSPARENCY; the property of bodies by which they admit the passage of light through them. It does not consist, however, simply in transmitting light in sufficient quantity, but in transmitting it in straight lines. Water and oil, for instance, are each separately transparent substances, but, mixed together, are untransparent, because they refract light differently. On the other hand, paper, which by itself is opaque, becomes transparent by moistening it with water or oil. transparency of a body has no connexion with its hardness or softness, or porosity, as one would at first imagine. The hard diamond is transparent: the softest kinds of wood, on the contrary, are not so, because the rectilinear direction of the rays of light in the mass does not depend on the properties just mentioned. The unchangeableness of this rectilinear direction of the rays of light must therefore be regarded as the proper fundamental cause of transparency. Newton, in his Optics, has proposed acute inquiries and conjectures respecting transparency in the sense just given. Bouguet, in his Traité d'Optique (Paris, 1760, 4to.), has given the results of his experiments on the diminution which the light suffers in its passage through different bodies. The newlyinvented photometer of Lampadius depends upon this principle of the diminution of light by transparent bodies. It is

Supper.)

(See Lord's

TRANSYLVANIA; a grand principality, forming part of the Hungarian estates of the imperial house of Austria, lying between Hungary, Walachia and Moldavia; 23,500 square miles; population, 2,000,000. It is called by the Germans Siebenbürgen, from Siebengebirge (q. v.), whence a colony of German colonists removed to the former region in 1143. The Latin name Transylvania is derived from its situation beyond the Carpathian forests; and the Hungarian name Erdely signifies the mountainous forest. Transylvania is surrounded on the east, south, and partly on the north, by the Carpathian mountains, from which lateral chains branch off, and cross the country in every direction. It consists chiefly of alternate mountains and valleys, with few extensive plains. The principal rivers are the Maros, Samos and Aluta. The lakes are deep. The soil is generally fertile, but badly cultivated; the climate cold for the latitude, but healthy. The productions are wheat, oats, barley, potatoes; maize and vines are raised in favorable situations; orchards are not neglected; hay, and all artificial grasses, are unknown, and cattle subsist upon natural herbage; cattle and sheep are numerous; there are extensive forests. The mineral productions are various. There are salt mines producing annually from 30 to 40,000 tons; iron mines, yielding 3000 or 4000 tons of iron; mines of lead, copper, silver and gold; quarries of marble, jasper, porphyry, slate, limestone, coal, sulphur and petroleum, precious stones, as topazes, chrysolites, opals, garnets, &c.; and mineral springs in abundance. Transylvania is a part of the ancient Dacia. (q. v.) From the fifth century downward, it was successively occupied by different nations; and, in 1004, it was made a province of Hungary. John Zapolya, in 1535, was acknowledged by the king of Hungary sovereign prince

of Transylvania; and he and his successors were often supported by the Turks against the Hungarian princes of the Austrian dynasty. Leopold I finally conquered the country, in 1689; and, by the peace of Carlovitza (q.v.), in 1699, the sovereignty of Austria over Transylvania was acknowledged by Turkey. The country, however, continued to be governed by its own princes, until the extinction of their line, in 1713, when it was incorporated with Hungary. Maria Theresa erected it into a grand principality in 1765. The population is composed of thirteen nations. The three principal people are the Hungarians, Szecklers (supposed to be descendants of the Petshenegurs) and Saxons (the German colonists above mentioned). The country is accordingly divided into three main divisions: 1. the Land of the Szecklers, in the east, thinly peopled, and subdivided into three seats or jurisdictions; 2. the Land of the Hungarians, in the west, which comprises half of the population and extent of the country, and is divided into eleven counties (comitatus) and two districts; 3. the Land of the Saxons in the south and north, which is the best cultivated, and is divided into nine seats or jurisdictions and two districts. These three nations are called the United (Uniti); the others, called the Tolerated (Tolerati), are Walachians, Armenians, Greeks, Moravians, Poles, Russians, Bulgarians, Servians or Rascians, Jews and gipsies. The last mentioned, called also Pharaohs, and New Peasants, lead a roving life, and cannot be induced to cultivate the land in a stationary place of residence. The Walachians are the most numerous of the Tolerati. Trade is chiefly in the hands of Greeks and Armenians. The Saxons are the most industrious part of the population, and in their Land lie Hermannstadt, the capital, with 16,000 inhabitants, and Cronstadt, the principal commercial and manufacturing place in Transylvania, with 30,000 inhabitants. The Transylvanian nobility enjoy exemption from taxes, and from the county jurisdiction, and other privileges. The higher nobility, barons and counts, are styled magnates. The lower nobility are not altogether exempt from taxes: this class includes those nobles who have no manor, the citizens of the free cities, and the officers of the chase to the sovereign. The rest of the people consists of the citizens of the other towns, emancipated peasants and serfs. The Transylvanian estates are divided, in regard to nations, into the Hungarian, Szeckler and

Saxon benches; in respect of religion, into the Catholic, Reformed (Calvinistic), Evangelical (Lutheran), and Unitarian or Socinian benches; and, in regard to character, into those of the prelates, of the magnates, and of the nobles. The diets are held in Hermannstadt. The estates have the right, in connexion with the crown, to make laws, impose taxes, and confer the rights of citizenship on foreigners. The revenue of the principality amounts to 5,000,000 guilders. The four religions above mentioned are privileged; others are only tolerated. (See Military District.)

TRAPEZOID, or TRAPEZIUM; a quadrilateral figure of unequal sides, and, consequently, unequal angles. It is different from parallelograms (q. v.), which are quadrilateral figures, with the opposite sides always equal. The word is derived from the Greek rpanetov, which had the same meaning in Greek geometry.

TRAP-ROCKS; an important class of rocks in geology, which derive their name from the Swedish word trappa, a stair, because they frequently divide into regular forms, resembling the steps of stairs. These rocks vary in texture, from an apparently simple rock to a confusedly crystalline compound, in which crystals of feldspar are disseminated. The predominant substance in the members of the family is a simple rock, of which indurated clay (wacke) may be placed at one extreme, and compact feldspar at the other, the intermediate members being claystone or clinkstone. In some cases, it forms the whole mass; in others, it is mixed with other materials in various proportions, producing great diversities of aspect, without any material variations in the fundamental character. It often appears as if quartz, feldspar and hornblende composed the mass, and various circumstances determined their union in such a manner as to produce a large proportion of the different compounds known as trap-rocks, sometimes the hornblende being in mass, at others the feldspar, while the quartz rarely predominates. In other situations, confusedly crystalline compounds have been the result. Quartz, feldspar and hornblende united form sienite; or feldspar and hornblende, without the quartz, constitute greenstone. The compounds occasionally contain disseminated crystals of feldspar, and thus become what are called greenstone porphyries (diabase porphyroide, French; Grunstein Porphyr, German). A paste of green hornblende, containing crystals of feldspar,

constitutes the antique green porphyry (the ophite of the French). Some of the trappean rocks are often vesicular, in the manner of modern lavas; the vesicles, however, being generally filled up by some mineral substances, which have been infiltrated into them subsequent to their formation. Such substances are either agates, calcareous spar, or some of the zeolitic minerals. From these cavities frequently being of an almond shape, or rather from the appearance of their solid contents resembling almonds in form, the term amygdaloid has been applied to rocks of this description. It must be understood that the base, or paste of the amygdaloids, is not constantly the same, but is liable to vary materially. A trap-rock is sometimes both amygdaloidal and porphyritic at the same time. Other minerals besides those above enumerated occur in the trappean rocks, but cannot be considered as forming an essential part of them, with the exception of augite and hypersthene, which, with the mixture of either common compact, or glassy feldspar, constitute the augite and hypersthene rocks. It would be inappropriate to the present article to attempt a notice of the various aspects under which these rocks present themselves. It should, however, be remarked, that the term basalt is applied to substances which are not precisely the same, being sometimes given to a fine compound of augite and compact feldspar; at others, to a minute mixture of hornblende and compact feldspar; sometimes to dark, indurated claystones, and finally to a compound of feldspar, augite and titaniferous

iron.

The last mixture seems that now most commonly termed basalt. Basalt is possessed of a greenish, or brownish, and sometimes of an iron-black, color. It is difficult to break, and possesses a considerable degree of hardness. It is fusible into a black glass, and is magnetic. The iron which it contains, as is the fact also with greenstone, passes, when exposed to the air, into a further state of oxygenation; and they are consequently generally covered with a reddish-brown incrustation.The whole family of trap-rocks have, on the one hand, a close alliance with volcanic rocks, and, on the other, with the more ancient rocks of porphyry and granite. The gradation of trap-rock, having, in some parts, a volcanic character, into true granite, has been observed in a mountain near Christiania, in Norway. The lower rocks are gneiss, over which occurs dark slate, in which are beds of blackish limestone, containing organic remains. These