erly styled towns, while by cities is commonly meant those places which are incorporated with certain peculiar municipal powers. In the New England states, the townships differ much in extent, varying from five to six miles square. They are incorporated by the legislatures of the states with certain rights, and a distinct police, conducted by officers chosen annually by the inhabitants. Some of the principal officers are a town-clerk, selectmen, assessors of taxes, overseers of the poor, school committee, &c. The townships in the New England states, and in New York, are subdivided into school districts of a convenient size, in which free schools are maintained at least a part of every year. The money necessary for the support of the schools and the poor, for the repair of roads, &c., is raised in each town by vote of the inhabitants. Each of these towns thus constitutes a little democracy, in which the affairs of the community are managed by the people themselves in their town-meetings. TOWTON; a village of England, in Yorkshire, three miles south-east of Tadcaster. A sanguinary battle was fought here, between the forces of the houses of York and Lancaster, in 1461, in which the latter were completely defeated. (See Edward IV.) TOXICOLOGY (from Točikov, properly the poison which the ancients put upon arrows and spears); the science of poisons and antidotes. The works of Frank and Orfila are distinguished in this branch, also Buchner's and Witting's. (See Poisons.) TRACHEOTOMY, or BRONCHOTOMY (from trachea, or Booyxos, the windpipe, and repvw, to cut); also LARYNGOTOMY (from Aapuys, the larynx, and repvw). This is an operation in which an opening is made into the larynx, or windpipe, either for the purpose of making a passage for the air into and out of the lungs, when any disease prevents the patient from breathing through the mouth and nostrils, or of extracting foreign bodies, which have accidentally fallen into the windpipe; or, lastly, in order to be able to inflate the lungs, in cases of sudden suffocation, drowning, &c. Its practicableness, and little danger, are founded on the facility with which certain wounds of the windpipe, even of the most complicated kind, have been healed, without leaving any ill effects whatever, and on the nature of the parts cut, which are not furnished with any vessel of consequence. TRACKSHUYT. (See Treckshuyt.) TRACTORS, METALLIC. (See Perkins.) TRADE OF THE WORLD. (See Commerce of the World.) This TRADE-WINDS (so called from their favoring commerce); easterly winds which constantly prevail, with slight variations, in certain regions within the tropics. It is a common notion, that the north-east trade-wind blows exactly from the northeast point nearly to the equator, when it gradually becomes more and more easterÏy, till at length it blows due east; and so with the south-east trade. This notion is, however, erroneous. The trade-winds, in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, extend to about 28° of latitude each side of the equator; so that a ship, after passing 30°, may expect to enter them every day. But, on first entering them, they will be found to blow from the east, or even a little southerly, and, as you advance, to draw round gradually to north-east, and even north, at the southern limit of the north-east trade, where it is commonly represented as being due east. limit varies with the position of the sun, reaching, when the sun has a southern declination, to within three or four degrees north latitude, and, as the sun acquires a more northern declination, receding ten or twelve degrees from the equator. At this point, the mariner enters the region of calms and variables, as they are called, where the wind has a more or less southerly direction, and sometimes blows freshly from the southsouth-west. This region varies from 150 to 550 miles, and is subject to heavy rains. On passing this range, the southeast trade begins, and displays the same phenomena as the north-east. To the north and south of the north-east and south-east trades, westerly winds will be found generally to prevail, though less regular in the northern than in the southern hemisphere; and it has been remarked that the average of the passages made by the Liverpool packets from New York out, for a period of six years, was twentythree days, and from Liverpool to New York, that is, from east to west, thirtyeight days. TRADITION, in its general application, is any knowledge handed down from one generation to another by oral communication. This is the shape in which history appears before the art of writing is invented or introduced; and the later this takes place, the farther back does tradition extend, till it loses itself in mythology. Any person who has noticed the manner in which facts are distorted, even at the present day, if not protected against grad ascribe to the statements of ancient wriual change and misrepresentation by un ters full credibility, though the writer may questionable documents, although the have lived in a time or country so distant sources of correct information have been from that to which his narrative relates, so greatly increased, will easily under- that he had no better opportunity of judgstand why historical tradition is to be re- ing than ourselves. (See Niebuhr's Roceived with the utmost caution. Every man History.)-Tradition, in another person, every country, every age, invol sense, forms one of the chief points of disuntarily gives a coloring to facts, to say agreement between the Roman Catholics nothing of intentional misstatements. But and Protestants, perhaps the most importhere is a species of historical tradition tant. The Catholic understands by trawhich exists even after the invention not dition the unwritten word of God, that is, only of writing, but of printing. It is the sacred truths orally communicated by Jerepetition of hearsay, by which misrepre- sus and the apostles, which were not sentations of facts, or downright inven- written down, but, by the assistance of tions, creep into notice, and soon become the Holy Ghost, were preserved in the widely repeated and believed, either be- church from one generation of bishops to cause they suit the purposes of a party, or another. The chief sources of it are conbecause they are presented with an air of sidered to be the fathers of the church, credibility. How many stories, believed who, indeed, introduced rites not prescribfor centuries, have at last been proved ed by the Bible, and some of which, as utterly false! how many are yet in the the baptism of children, confession, the mouths of millions, and, nevertheless, un- celebration of certain festivals, &c., have true! It becomes the historian, therefore, been retained by many Protestant sects, to examine into the origin of every state- yet with different views from those enterment, and the character and situation of tained by the Catholics respecting their those on whose authority it rests: did importance, or necessity for salvation. they know with certainty what they re- The Catholics ascribe to their tradition late? were they not actuated by interest, divine authority, and thus make it a prinpassion or prejudice? The same caution ciple in their dogmatics. They maintain which the historian must observe in re- that the church has always remained in gard to traditions, politicians and citizens possession of the revelation of the Holy of a free government ought to exercise in Ghost, which the apostles enjoyed, and regard to those party rumors which we that this revelation or belief of the church might term political traditions. Without is ascertained by the decrees of the counsuch caution, a free people becomes the cils (q. v.), the concurrence of the fathers tools of demagogues. Every statement of the church, and the decrees of the in print receives, from this very circum- popes (the Gallican church, however, stance, a kind of authority; and what has does not give this authority to the decrees not been said in print? Newspapers of the pope, unless they are acquiesced in (q. v.), much as they contribute to general by the church universal, though it admits information, also contribute much to the that this acquiescence may be tacit). The propagation of these unfounded reports. Bible, indeed, is adopted as a rule of faith The counterstatements of opposite papers by the Catholics as well as by the Protserve, indeed, in some measure, to correct estants; but the former consider it as to each other's misrepresentations; but, as be explained and understood according to the mass of people read only the papers the construction which the church puts of their own party, misstatements will in- upon the doctrines contained in it-a evitably gain a footing; and a man who principle sanctioned by the council of is desirous of believing only the truth, Trent. A reverence for tradition, theremust subject the stories admitted on hear- fore, is taught in all Catholic catechisms; say by his party to a critical scrutiny. It and it is the foundation on which the was long believed that a female was raised Catholic believes in his rites, and the to the papal chair, under the name of characteristic parts of his religious worship. John VIII (see Joan the Papess); and In the Canones et Decreta Concilii Tridenhow many persons have credited the tini, Appendix, p. xxii, we find in pope newspaper stories that Napoleon 'used to Pius's creed the following passage: Aposbeat his wife, and had criminal inter- tolicas et ecclesiasticas traditiones, reliquæcourse with his daughter-in-law! The que ejusdem ecclesiæ observationes et constistory of the beating is, in fact, still re- tutiones firmissime admitto et amplector. peated in some histories of Napoleon, so called! It is a very common mistake to 27 VOL. XII. Item, sacram scripturam juxta eum sensum, quem tenuit et tenet sancta mater eccle sia, cujus est judicare de vero sensu et interpretatione sacrarum scripturarum, admitto; nec eam unquam, nisi juxta unanimem consensum patrum accipiam, et interpretabor. The council of Trent ascribes equal authority to tradition and the Bible. It has been said, indeed, that it ought to have given greater authority to the former, as the latter can only, by the council's own decree, be legitimately explained by the church or traditions. From all that has been said, it appears that tradition is to the Catholic what reason is to the rationalist, and the literal text of the Bible, scientifically and conscientiously settled, to the supernaturalist. (See Roman Catholic Church.) TRADITORES; a name given, in the first ages of the church, to those Christians who, during the persecutions, especially those under Diocletian, gave up the sacred books and utensils to the heathen authorities, to escape the dangers which threatened them. They were generally timorous priests, and were punished by the church with dismissal from office. The Donatists (q. v.) considered the Traditores on a level with the worst heretics, and separated from the Catholic church on the ground that it tolerated them. (See Donatists.) TRADUCIANS (from traduco, to transmit); a name which the Pelagians an,ciently gave to the Catholics, because of their teaching that original sin was transmitted from father to children. At present, the term is sometimes applied to those who hold that souls are transmitted to children by the parents. TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF. (See Navy, where it is fully described.) TRAGEDY (from the Greek and Latin tragædia). The Greek word is derived from τραγος, and on, a song. It is an old, but not, therefore, less absurd opinion, says Adelung, in his Wörterbuch, that the first part of the word roayos signifies, in this composition, a he goat, and the whole, a song in honor of Bacchus, sung at the sacrifice of a he goat, or a play, for which the poet received a he goat-a derivation occasioned by its being generally known that rpayos signifies a he goat, while it is not so commonly known that it also signifies melancholy, of which the Latin tragicus is a clear proof; otherwise that word would have signified goatish. Hesychius explains ExTpaywda, explicitly, by anoμwet, anobonvu, he weeps. In the ancient Upper German, the word Trego signifies grief; in Lower Saxon, träge is weary, sad; and in Swedish, träga means to mourn, and träge, grief; all of which are connected with the Greek Tрayikos, or payos. Trage dy, therefore, properly signifies a melancholy song, as comedy signifies a gay one. But that payos, in Greek, signifies both a he goat and melancholy, is as accidental as that ram, in English, means a male sheep, and also to drive down. So far Mr. Adelung. The invention of tragedy, in its first rude form, is ascribed to Thespis, who lived in the time of Solon. According to Herodotus, the people of Sicyon introduced tragic choruses before the times of Thespis, first in honor of Bacchus, then of Adrastus; to them, therefore, the invention of the Greek tragedy is generally ascribed; its developement is due to Eschylus. As Aristotle found it, he described it as a dramatic poem, which has for its object to purify by terror and pity, awakened by the poetical imitation of an action. To understand this oft-repeated explanation, we must examine the meaning of purifying passions by means of passions. The artificial production of those passions which affect us disagreeably, cannot well have any effect in purifying the soul, except by strengthening the mind, and exercising it in governing the passions in general. For such a purpose, indeed, a state of mind seems proper, in which man feels at the same time the influence of strong emotions, and the power to free himself from their influence at pleasure. Into this state tragedy strives to bring us. It aims to awaken in us those passions which rest on sympathy (and which, therefore, impede our inward freedom less than the purely selfish ones), by an artificial appearance, by truth of conception without reality of action, and whilst it does not hide the want of reality, it leaves us the feeling of ability to free ourselves from the influence of the scene at pleasure, even if it were only by the consciousness that the whole is but appearance. Who could calmly witness the performance of a tragedy if he really thought, but for a moment, the sufferings represented on the stage were real? The poet strives to operate upon us by the liveliness of his creations, and thus to arouse within us those powers which counteract the passions. As the exercise of these powers is the object in view, he must avoid carrying the sympathetic emotion so far, that we can escape the pain only by a complete destruction of the illusion; because, as soon as we take this means, that exercise of the moral faculty ceases. We must be able to suffer the conception of being in the situation of the actors, even when we see them perish, by feeling in ourselves the existence of those powers, of which they, for the moment, seem to be deprived. From this point of view, the definition of Aristotle is perhaps to be reconciled with what has been said, in modern times, on the essence of tragedy. Even dramatic writers have confounded the melancholy with the tragic; but it may be deduced from what has been said, that the essence of tragedy does not depend on the melancholy end, on the tears extorted, but on the greatness and elevation of the chief idea contained in the fable, and which it illustrates, as by a living example. Whilst we pity the suffering depicted, we must be able to delight in the nobleness of its cause, as, otherwise, no feeling is excited in us but a purely painful one, from which we can only escape by the idea that the whole spectacle is an illusion. Many theories have been started to explain what is properly the tragical in tragedy, some very obscure, others less so; as that the tragical is founded on the struggle of human freedom with necessity, of the will with fate, &c. But the comic, the true comic, is, in many cases, nothing else. This struggle belongs to the drama in general. (See Drama.) TRAJAN. M. Ulpius Trajanus, a Roman emperor, born in Italica, in the Spanish province of Bætica, was the son of Trajanus, a distinguished Roman commander, under Vespasian. He accompanied his father in a campaign against the Parthians, and also served on the Rhine, where he acquired so high a character, that when the excellent and aged Nerva came to the throne, he adopted him, and raised him to the rank of Cæsar, in 97, being then in his forty-second, or, according to some, in his fortyfifth year, and of a most dignified appearance and commanding aspect. His elevation immediately curbed the insolence of the pretorian guards; and Nerva dying a few months after, he peaceably succeeded to the throne. He was at that time in Germany, where he remained for more than a year, to settle a peace with the German states, and, in 99, set out with a numerous escort to Rome. After a liberal largess to the soldiers and people, he took measures for supplying the capital with corn; in which he was eminently successful. He then proceeded to punish and banish the pernicious tribe of informers, and to reduce some of the most odious of the taxes, and showed the most praiseworthy solicitude to fill the most important posts with men of talent and integrity. Like Augustus, he cultivated personal friendships, and visited his intimates at their houses with entire confidence, and as a private person. His palace was open to his friends and to all who chose to enter it, and his audiences were free to all the citizens. At his table were always some of the most respectable Romans, who indulged in the ease of mixed conversation. Although his early military experience had prevented him from acquiring the accomplishments of learning, he was sensible of its importance, and founded libraries; and under his patronage, the studies were revived which had suffered from the persecution of Domitian. His virtues procured for him, by the unanimous voice of the senate, the title of Optimus. In the third year of his reign, he accepted of a third consulship; and during his possession of this magistracy, the celebrated panegyric upon him was pronounced by Pliny, which is still extant. In the following year, a war broke out with Decebalus, king of the Dacians, whom he subdued. He then returned to Rome, and enjoyed the honors of a triumph, with the name of Dacicus. The two following years he passed at Rome, and in the last of them, 103, Pliny was made governor of Pontus and Bithynia, which circumstance gave rise to a series of official letters between him and Trajan, which, beyond any rhetorical panegyric, afford proof of the liberal spirit of the government. Among these are the famous epistles respecting the Christians, whom he directs Pliny not to search for, but to punish if brought before him; and on no account to listen to anonymous charges. In 104, Decebalus renewed the war with the Romans, which immediately called out the warlike emperor, who, with a view to form a road for his troops, constructed a bridge over the Danube, which was deemed one of the greatest works of antiquity. He then marched into Dacia, and reduced the capital of Decebalus, who, in despair, killed himself; and Dacia became a Roman province. His passion for war-the only fault which can be charged on Trajan as a sovereign-exhibits him, for the remainder of his reign, rather as a victorious commander, engaged in distant expeditions for the enlargement of the empire, than as a sovereign ruler. The disposal of the crown of Armenia led, in the first instance, to a contest with Chosroes the Parthian, of which war the reduction of Armenia to a Roman province was the result. The succeeding Eastern campaigns of Trajan, and the renewal of the war with Parthia, cannot be detailed in summaries of this nature. The year 114 is said to be that in which he dedicated the magnificent forum which he built in Rome, and erected the column sculptured with his exploits, which still remains under his name. In a final campaign in the East, after giving a king to the Parthians, he laid siege to Atra, the capital of an Arabian tribe, but was obliged to withdraw to Syria. In the following year, 117, he proposed returning into Mesopotamia, but was attacked by a paralytic disorder, attended by a dropsy, which induced him to repair to Italy, leaving the army under the command of Adrian. He had proceeded no farther than Selinus, in Cilicia, when he died. The empress Plotina took advantage of his last moments to secure the adoption of Adrian for his successor, not without some suspicion of a gross deception. Trajan died in his sixty-fourth year, after a reign of nearly twenty years. As a sovereign, the only blemish in his character was his great passion for war, the extension of empire produced by which -the greatest that ever acknowledged Roman sway-scarcely lasted longer than his own lifetime. In his private character he was said to be addicted to sensual indulgences, of which a passion for wine was by far the least disgraceful. His good qualities as a ruler, however, were such that, at the distance of two hundred and fifty years from his death, the senators, in their acclamations on the accession of a new emperor, were accustomed to wish that he might be more fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan. TRAJAN'S COLUMN. (See Column.) TRAMONTANA. The Italians give this name to the north wind, because it comes to them over the Alps, and for a similar reason, they call the north or polar star stella tramontana. This gave rise to the saying perder la tramontana-applied to one who loses his way-a metaphor taken from mariners, who are guided in their course by the pole-star. The phrase has even passed from the Italians to the French (perdre la tramontane), and the Germans (die Tramontane verlieren), though, in its original signification, it has no application to France and Germany. TRANCE; an ecstasy, a state in which the voluntary functions of the body are suspended, and the soul seems to be rapt into visions. (For the state of apparent death, which sometimes takes place to such a degree as to have led to the interment of people under the supposition that death had actually taken place, see Asphyxia, and Death; and for the means of restoring suspended animation, see Drowning.) TRANQUEBAR; a seaport of the Carnatic, in Tanjore, 56 miles south of Pondicherry; lon. 79° 54′ E.; lat. 11° 1' N.; population, 15,000. It belongs to the Danes, having been purchased by them in 1616, and is the seat of a governor, and the capital of the Danish possessions in India. (See East India Companies.) It is situated on the coast of Coromandel, with a harbor at the mouth of one of the branches of the Cauvery, defended by a fortress. The town is between two and three miles in circumference, and surrounded with a wall and several bastions, well provided with artillery. Within the walls are three Christian churches, one Lutheran, one missionary, and one for Roman Catholics (descendants of Portuguese who were in possession of the town before it was possessed by the Danes), a large mosque for the Mohammedans, and five pagodas for the Hindoos. The fort called Daneborg is kept in neat order. The territory belonging to the town is considerable (425 square miles, population, 50,000), and is full of populous villages. TRANSCENDENT and TRANSCENDENTAL are technical terms in philosophy. According to their etymology (from transcendere), they signify that which goes beyond a certain limit; in philosophy, that which goes beyond, or transcends, the circle of experience, or of what is perceptible by the senses. Properly speaking, all philosophy is in this sense transcendental, because all philosophical investigations rise above the sensual, even if they start from that which is perceptible by the senses. But philosophical inquiries are to be distinguished according as they proceed from experience, or from principles and ideas not derived from that source. latter sort are called, in a narrower sense, pure, or transcendental. The school of Kant makes a still further distinction: it gives the name of transcendental to that which does not indeed originate from experience, but yet is connected with it, because it contains the grounds of the possibility of experience; but the term transcendent it applies to that which cannot be connected with experience, but transcends the limit of possible experience and of philosophizing. The transcendent, therefore, is The |