conspicuously displayed. He comforted the afflicted, relieved the sufferers by his bounty, and exerted all his care for the restoration of public prosperity. The Romans did not long enjoy the benefits of his wise and virtuous administration. He was seized with a violent fever, and, retiring to a country house which had belonged to his father, he there expired, lamenting with his latest breath the severity of his fate, which removed him from the world before he had perfected his plans for the benefit of his grateful subjects, whose sorrow for his loss was heightened by their apprehensions arising from the gloomy and unpromising character of his brother Domitian (q. v.), who was even suspected of having hastened the catastrophe which was to contribute to his own elevation to imperial power. Titus died A. D. 81, in the forty-first year of his age, after reigning two years.

TITYOS. (See Tartarus.)

TIVERTON; a borough of Devonshire, England, with the remains of a castle, the site of which covered nearly an acre. The church of St. Peter, a handsome structure, is the work of different ages. The north side was built about 1073. The south side, ornamented with much curious sculpture, was erected about 1520. The tower is 116 feet in height. A free grammar school was founded here about 1599, attached to which are two fellowships and two scholarships, at Cambridge, and the same at Oxford. Tiverton returns two members to parliament. It was formerly famous for its woollen manufactures, and is now well known for an extensive manufacture of lace, in which more than 2000 persons are employed. Population, 9766. Fourteen miles north of Exeter.

TIVOLI, on the Teverone, remarkable for its classical associations and beautiful situation, is the capital of a district in the Campagna di Roma; population, 5500; eighteen miles north-east of Rome. The Teverone (anciently Anio) here precipitates itself nearly 100 feet in one mass, and then rushes through a chasm of the rock into a cavern below. (See Terni.) Here are some beautiful ruins in the vicinity, the remains of the ancient Tibur. Near the town is also the Solfatara, or Lago di Bagni. (See Campagna di Roma.)

TIZIANO. (See Titian.) TLASCALA; at the time of the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards, an independent state at war with the Mexicans, but afterwards included in the intendancy

of Puebla de los Angeles, in the viceroyalty of New Spain. (See Mexico, and Puebla.) It now forms a territory of the Mexican republic, the population (about 60,000) not being sufficient to constitute it an independent state. The principal town, Tlascala (64 miles east of Mexico; lon. 98° 10′ W.; lat. 19° 25′ N.), situated on a river running into the Pacific, is said to have contained 300,000 inhabitants when the Spaniards arrived here. At present, the population does not exceed 3000.

TOAD (bufo). The toads are hardly distinguishable from the frogs, except by their more clumsy form and motions, and the warts with which the skin is studded. The jaws, however, are destitute of teeth, and their habits are more terrestrial; for they keep at a distance from the water during the greater part of the year. They come out of their holes chiefly during the night, and feed on snails, worms and insects. They are capable of living a long time without food, and have been known to remain whole years in walls, hollow trees, in the earth, or even when artificially enclosed in plaster.* In the

*This, at least, is the common opinion; but the celebrated geologist, professor Buckland, in a paper published in the Edinburgh Philosophical number of experiments which he made on the Journal for July, 1832, says, in reference to a vitality of toads enclosed in wood and stone "From the result, it seems to follow that toads pheric air, and that they cannot survive two cannot live a year excluded totally from atmosyears entirely excluded from food; and there is a want of sufficiently minute and accurate observation in those so frequently recorded cases, where toads are said to be found alive within blocks of stone and wood, in cavities that had no communication whatever with the external air. The first

effort of the young toad, as soon as it has left its tadpole state and emerged from the water, is to seek

shelter in holes and crevices of rocks and trees. An individual which, when young, may have thus entered a cavity by some very narrow aperture, would find abundance of food by catching insects, which, like itself, seek shelter within such cavities, and may soon have increased so much in bulk as to render it impossible to go out again through the narrow aperture at which it entered. A small hole of this kind very likely to be overlooked by common workmen, who are the only people whose operations on stone and wood disclose cavities in the interior of such substances. In the case of toads, snakes and lizards, that occasionally issue from stones that are broken in a quarry, or in sinking wells, and sometimes even from strata of coal at the bottom

of a coal mine, the evidence is never perfect, to show that the reptiles were entirely enclosed in a solid rock no examination is ever made, until the reptile is first discovered by the breaking of the mass in which it was contained, and then it is too late to ascertain, without carefully replacing

every fragment (and in no case, that I have seen reported, has this ever been done), whether or

spring, they resort to the water for the purpose of depositing their eggs. The tadpoles are born there, acquire gills, and in every respect resemble those of frogs. The common toad of Europe has been an object of disgust, and even horror, in all ages; and numerous fables have been related concerning it. It has been accused of being poisonous, but most certainly is guilty of no other crime than that of ugliness. Notwithstanding the popular prejudice, it has been ascertained that the legs are sold extensively in the markets of Paris for those of frogs.-The common toad of North America (B. musicus) seldom crawls like the European species, but moves by a succession of short leaps. It is found in all parts of the U. States. Early in the spring, these assemble in great numbers in ponds, and utter a longcontinued, thrilling note, familiar to the ears of most of us.-The tree-toads (hyla) belong to a different genus, distinguished by having a mucous tubercle at the extremity of each toe, by means of which, acting as a sucker, they are enabled to cling to the branches of trees, or to a perpendicular wall. There are several species in the U. States.

TOAD-FLAX (antirrhinum linaria). This plant is naturalized, and a troublesome weed, in many parts of the U. States. In its general habit, it is not very unlike the flax; but the flowers are bright yellow, showy, and of a singular form, the corolla labiate, and provided with a long spur. In the ordinary state of the plant, the lips of the corolla are closed, and, if forcibly opened, somewhat resemble the mouth of some animal; hence the name of snap-dragon has been applied to plants of this genus. It grows in sandy soil. A singular deviation from the ordinary structure of the flower sometimes takes place in this plant, and has led to some discoveries in vegetable physiology: the

not there was any hole or crevice by which the animal may have entered the cavity from which it was extracted. Without previous examina

tion, it is almost impossible to prove that there was no such communication. In the case of rocks near the surface of the earth, and in stone quarries, reptiles find ready admission to holes and fissures. We have a notorious example of this kind in the lizard found in a chalk-pit, and brought alive to the late doctor Clarke. In the case, also, of wells and coal-pits, a reptile that had fallen down the well or shaft, and survived its fall, would seek its natural retreat in the first hole or crevice it could find; and the miner, dislodging it from this cavity, to which his previous attention had not been called, might, in ignorance, conclude that the animal was coeval with the stone from which he had extracted it."

corolla then assumes a regular form, and is provided with five radiating spurs, instead of one.

TOALDO, Giuseppe, a celebrated Italian mathematician, astronomer and meteorologist, born in 1719, near Vicenza, studied theology at Padua, but occupied himself chiefly with the mathematical sciences, and, in 1762, was made professor of astronomy and meteorology in the university of Padua. Through his influence, an observatory was built there, and lightning rods were erected in various places. His mathematical text-books are distinguished for clearness and precision, and have been introduced into many schools in Italy. His Astronomical and Meteorological Journal was continued from 1773 till his death, and his essay On the Influence of the Weather upon the Growth of Plants, which gained the prize proposed by the scientific society of Montpellier (1774), is a standard work. He published several other esteemed works, and died in 1797.

TOBACCO (Nicotiana tabacum). The introduction of the use of tobacco forms a singular chapter in the history of mankind; and it may well excite astonishment, that the discovery in America of a nauseous and poisonous weed, of an acrid taste and disagreeable odor, in short, whose only properties are deleterious, should have had so great an influence on the social condition of all nations; that it should have become an article of most extensive commerce; and that its culture should have spread more rapidly than that of the most useful plants. At the time of the discovery of America, tobacco was in frequent use among the Indians, and the practice of smoking was common to almost all the tribes; and they pretended to cure a great variety of diseases by this plant. Its introduction into the eastern continent was every where marked with ridicule and persecution. The book written against it by James I is well known; but a hundred others of the same character were published in various languages. Pope Urban VIII excommunicated those who took tobacco in churches; the empress Elizabeth also prohibited its use in churches. In Transylvania, an ordinance was published, in 1689, threatening those who should plant tobacco with the confiscation of their estates. The grand-duke of Moscow and the king of Persia forbade its use under the penalty of the loss of the nose, and even of death. At present, the aspect of affairs is so much changed, that all the sovereigns of Europe, and most

of those of other parts of the world, derive a considerable part of their revenue from tobacco. The plant is glutinous, and covered with a very short down; the stem upright, four or five feet high, and branching; the leaves are alternate, sessile, oval-oblong, and entire on the margin; the superior ones lanceolate; the flowers are disposed in a terminal panicle; the tube of the corolla long, inflated towards the summit, and dividing into five acute, angular, spreading lobes, of a rose color. It was originally a native of South America.-Another species (N. rustica) is very common, but is less esteemed, and is distinguished by the short, yellowish-green corolla.-N. quadrivalvis is cultivated by the Indians of Missouri, and furnishes tobacco of excellent quality.-The best Havana cigars are made from the leaves of N. repanda.-Other species of tobacco are found in Mexico and South America. One has been discovered in China, and another in New Holland. This genus belongs to the natural family solanea. This popular narcotic is probably in more extensive use than any other, and its only rival is the betel of the East. According to Linnæus, it was known in Europe from 1560, when seeds of it were sent from Portugal to Catharine de' Medici by Nicot (q. v.), the French ambassador in that country, from whom it received its botanical name. The common notion, that the specific appellation tobacco was derived from its having been imported from Tobago, is now universally admitted to be without foundation. Humboldt (Essai sur la Nouvelle Espagne, second edition, iii, 50) has shown that tobacco was the term used in the Haytian language to designate the pipe or instrument employed by the natives in smoking the herb; which term, having been transferred, by the Spaniards, from the pipe to the herb itself, has been adopted by other nations. Tobacco is believed to have been first introduced into England by the settlers, who returned, in 1586, from the colony which it had been attempted to found in Virginia under the auspices of Raleigh. Harriot says that the English, during the time they were in Virginia, and after their return home, were accustomed to smoke it after the manner of the natives (Hakluyt, i, 75). Raleigh, and other young men of fashion, adopted and introduced the practice into England; and it rapidly spread among the English, as it had previously done among the Portuguese, Spaniards and French. During the reign of George III, the practice of smoking, which had previously

been exceedingly prevalent, went out of fashion, and was nearly superseded, among the higher and middle classes, by that of snuff-taking. Latterly, however, smoking has been revived in that country. The practice of smoking has become so general, especially in Holland and Germany, that it constitutes a daily luxury with nearly all the peasantry of those countries, as well as with the more indolent and wealthy classes of inhabitants. Tobacco is a powerful narcotic, and also a strong stimulant, and, taken internally, even in small doses, it proves powerfully emetic and purgative.

The oil is celebrated for its extreme virulence, and, when applied to a wound, is said, by Redi, to be as fatal as the poison of a viper. The decoction, powder and smoke, are used in agriculture to destroy insects. As tobacco is cultivated for the leaves, it is an object to render these as large and as numerous as possible, and new, fresh and fertile soil is preferred. It is very sensible to frost. The plants are raised on beds, early in spring, and when they have acquired four leaves, they are planted in the fields, in well prepared earth, about three feet distant every way. Every morning and evening, the plants require to be looked over, in order to destroy a worm which sometimes invades the bud. When four or five inches high, they are moulded up. As soon as they have eight or nine leaves, and are ready to put forth a stalk, the top is nipped off, in order to make the leaves larger and thicker. After this, the buds, which sprout from the axils of the leaves, are all plucked; and not a day is suffered to pass without examining the leaves, to destroy a large caterpillar which is sometimes very destructive to them. When they are fit for cutting, which is known by the brittleness of the leaves, they are cut, with a knife, close to the ground; and, after lying some time, are carried to the drying shed, where the plants are hung up by pairs, upon lines, having a space between, that they may not touch one another. In this state they remain, to sweat and dry. When perfectly dry, the leaves are stripped from the stalks, and made into small bundles, tied with one of the leaves. These bundles are laid in heaps, and covered with blankets. Care is taken not to overheat them; for which reason, the heaps are laid open to the air from time to time, and spread abroad. This operation is repeated till no more heat is perceived in the heaps, and the tobacco is then stowed in casks for exportation. In the manufacture of tobacco, the leaves are first cleansed of any earth, dirt, or

decayed parts; next, they are gently moistened with salt and water, or water in which salt, along with other ingredients, has been dissolved, according to the taste of the fabricator. This liquor is called tobacco sauce. The next operation is to remove the midrib of the leaf; then the leaves are mixed together, in order to render the quality of whatever may be the final application, equal; next, they are cut into pieces, with a fixed knife, and crisped or curled before a fire. The succeeding operation is to spin them into cords, or twist them into rolls, by winding them, with a kind of mill, round a stick. These operations are performed by the grower. Afterwards, tobacconists cut it into chaff-like shreds for smoking, by a machine like a straw-cutter, form it into small cords for chewing, or dry and grind it for snuff. In manufacturing snuff, various matters are added for giving it an agreeable scent; and hence the numerous varieties of snuffs. The three principal sorts are called Rappees, Scotch, or Spanish, and Thirds. The first is only granulated; the second is reduced to a very fine powder; and the third is the siftings of the second sort. Tobacco is extensively cultivated in France and other European countries, in the Levant, and India; but the tobacco of the U. States is considered decidedly superior to most others, being much more highly flavored than that of Europe. Of 22,400,000 pounds of unmanufactured tobacco imported into England in 1829, 21,751,600 pounds were from the U. States. The yearly value of the tobacco exported from this country amounts to about 5,000,000 dollars. The tobacco of Cuba is preferred for smoking. TOBAGO; one of the Caribbee islands, in the West Indies, belonging to Great Britain, about thirty miles in length, from south-east to north-west, and about nine in breadth; lon. 60° 30′ W.; lat. 11° 16′ N.; population, 322 whites, 1164 free people of color, and 12,556 slaves. The climate of Tobago is temperate, the heat being allayed by the sea breezes; and it lies out of the track of those hurricanes that prove so fatal to the other West India islands. The surface is unequal and agreeably diversified; and its north-west extremity is mountainous. Its soil is of different kinds, but, in general, the mould is rich and black, and produces whatever is raised in other parts of the West Indies. The abundance of springs upon the island contributes to its healthfulness, and its bays and creeks are very commodious for shipping.

TOBIT. The book of Tobit, though rejected as apocryphal by the Jews and Protestants, is received into the canon by the Roman Catholics. It contains an account of some remarkable events in the life of Tobit or Tobias, a Jew of the tribe of Nephthali, and his son, of the same name. Jahn thinks it was written in Greek, about 200 or 150 B. C. Tobit, though carried away captive, and afflicted with the loss of sight, retained his trust in God, and distinguished himself by his active benevolence towards his countrymen. Having become poor, he determined to send his son Tobias to Media to collect a debt there due him, and the angel Raphael, who was commissioned by God for that purpose, served him as a guide. On arriving at the river Tigris, the young Tobias was attacked, while bathing, by a large fish, which, by the direction of Raphael, he killed, preserving the heart, liver and gall. Reaching Ecbatana, they found there a relation of Tobit, whose beautiful daughter, Sara, had been married seven times. But her seven husbands had all been killed, before consummating the marriage, by a devil, who loved the maid. By command of the angel, Tobias married her, and, on going into her chamber, burned the heart and liver of the fish upon the ashes of the perfume; and when the evil spirit smelt the smoke, he fled into the utmost parts of Egypt, and the angel bound him. Tobias now returned to his father with the money and his bride, and restored his sight by anointing his eyes with the gall of the fish. Tobit died at Nineveh, at the age of ninety-nine years, and his son Tobias retired to Ecbatana, where he lived to rejoice over the fall of Nineveh.

TOBOLSK; a government of Asiatic Russia, comprising the western part of Siberia, bounded north by the Frozen ocean, east by Tomsk, south by Orenburg, and west by Perm and Archangel; square miles, 356,000; population, 600,000. It is watered by the Oby and its branches, the Irtisch, Tobol, &c. (See Siberia.) The capital, of the same name, the chief city of Siberia, is on the Irtisch, at the junction of the Tobol; 1000 miles east by north of Moscow; lon. 68° 16' E.; lat. 58° 12′ N. It consists of two parts, upper and lower towns. The upper town has an elevated situation, and forms what is properly called the city. It contains the residence of the governor, the tribunals, public offices, and the magazine of foreign merchandise. The lower town is subject to inundation: it is entirely built

of wood, with the exception of a convent. Tobolsk contains one Lutheran and thirteen Greek churches, and two convents. Connected with the lower town is a suburb inhabited by Tartars, who are a quiet and industrious race. The other residents are in a great measure descendants of exiles sent here for their crimes, or for offences against the Russian gov. ernment, or sometimes on the mere caprice of despotism. The largest colony ever transported hither consisted of Swedish officers, made prisoners at the battle of Pultava, in 1709, many of whom were well-educated men. Tobolsk is a great thoroughfare for the trade of Siberia; and hither are brought all the furs collected as tribute to the government. Tobolsk is an archiepiscopal see, and has a theatre and a theological seminary. Population, 25,000. There is much difference in the climate and soil of the government of Tobolsk. The northern half is extremely cold, and unfit for cultivation, and even the heat of summer is soon interrupted by the icy winds from the sea. The wealth of this region consists of furs, fish and game. The reindeer is the most important domestic animal. The southern and western parts are more mild, although the winters are severe, and have a fruitful soil, yielding corn and flax in abundance, and furnishing rich pastures for large flocks of sheep, and herds of cattle and horses. Besides Russians, there are numerous Tartar tribes, with Samoiedes, Ostiacs, &c. among the inhabitants.

TOCAT, or TOKAT; a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pachalic of Sivas, anciently a city of Pontus, called Berisa; lon. 36° 30 E.; lat. 39° 35′ N. ; population, 100,000, chiefly Turks. It is almost surrounded with mountains, which afford quarries of marble, and is well supplied with water from innumerable springs. It is the residence of a cadi, a waywode, and The Armenians have seven churches, the Greeks one. Tocat may be considered as the centre of an extensive inland trade from all parts of Asia Minor. The caravans from Diarbekir arrive in eighteen days, from Sinob in six, from Bursa in twenty, from Smyrna in twenty-seven, and proportionally less on horseback or on mules.

an aga.

TOGA (from tegere, to cover); the garment of wool, which, in time of peace, Roman citizens wore in public. Latterly, it was worn almost exclusively by the male sex. Under the emperors, the toga went out of fashion. As only freeborn citizens

were permitted to wear the toga, it was . an honorary garment, and at the same time distinguished the Romans from other nations; hence gens togata is used for Roman people. As the toga was worn only in peace (the warrior wore the sagum), the word toga is sometimes used as a metaphor for peace, or peaceful citizens. The toga was thrown over the left shoulder, and passed under the right arm, which thus remained entirely free. From the breast downwards it was sewed together, and, as the Romans had no pockets, the hollow called sinus, in front of the breast, was used to put small articles in. The variety in the color, the fineness of the wool, and the ornaments attached to it, indicated the rank of the citizen. Generally it was white (toga alba). Rich persons wore wide toga, the poor narrow ones. Candidates for office wore a pure white toga. (See Candidate.) The mourning toga was black. Persons prosecuted at law wore dirty, or oid, or gray, or, in general, unsightly toga (toga sordida). If it was ornamented with a purple stripe, it was called toga prætexta. Such was worn by all superior magistrates and priests. This ornamented toga was also worn by boys and girls, the former till their seventeenth, the latter till their fourteenth year, after which the former changed it for the toga virilis, i. e. the common simple white toga, which was also called pura and libera. (See also Stola.) The triumphatores wore a toga adorned with gold and purple (toga picta, also palmata). Ald. Manutius has written on the toga, and Seckendorf has lately treated of its essential form.

TOGRUL BEG. (See Caliph, vol. ii, p. 412.)

TOISE. (See France, vol. v, p. 205.) TOKAY; a town of Hungary, in the county of Semplin, at the conflux of the rivers Theis and Bodrog; lon. 20° 57′ E.; lat. 48° 10' N.; population, 2800. This town is celebrated for its wine, which is esteemed the best of the wines of Hungary. It is the product of the country around the town called the Submontine district, or Hegyallya, twenty or thirty miles in extent. The prime Tokay, or Tokay Ausbruch, as it is termed, is prepared from grapes, gathered one by one, after having become dry and sweet, like raisins, whilst hanging on the vines. A great part of the wine sold for Tokay is produced in other parts of Hungary. (See Hungarian Wines, vol. vi, p. 482.)

TÖKÖLY. (See Tekeli.)

TOLAND, John, was born in 1669, in