wine. Besides the cultivated strawberry, we have a wild species, common in most parts of the U. States.

STREAKS; the uniform ranges of planks on the bottom or sides of a ship, or the continuations of planks joined by the ends to each other, and reaching from the stem, which limits the vessel forward, to the stern-post and fashion-pieces, which terminate her length abaft.

STREETS, PAVEMENT OF. (See Pavement.)

STRELITZ (Russian, strielzi, or strelzi, guards); the life-guards of the Russian czars, until the reign of Peter the Great. They were instituted in the latter half of the sixteenth century, by Ivan Wasiliewitsch, and formed, also, the standing infantry of the empire, amounting, sometimes, to 40,000 men. Their numerous privileges and their frequent insurrections rendered them as formidable as the Roman pretorians (q. v.), or the Turkish janizaries. (q. v.) Peter the Great dissolved the corps in 1697, in consequence of an insurrection, put several thousands to death, and banished the rest to Astrachan. Having been guilty of some disturbances here, they were entirely dispersed and destroyed in 1705.

STRETTO (Italian) signifies, in music, that the movement to which it is prefixed, is to be performed in a quick, concise

manner.

STRIKE; a measure of capacity, containing four pecks.

STRIKE, among seamen, is a word variously used. When a ship, in a fight, or on meeting with a ship of war, lets down or lowers her top-sails at least half-mast high, she is said to strike, meaning that she yields, or submits, or pays respect to the ship of war. Also, when a ship touches ground in shoal water, she strikes. And when a top-mast is to be taken down, the word of command is, Strike the topmast, &c.

STROGANOFF; a distinguished Russian family, descended from a merchant, Anika Stroganoff, who, in the sixteenth century, resided at Solwytschegodzka, and gave rise to the discovery of Siberia. The czar Ivan granted to Jacob and Gregory Stroganoff the desert country along the Kama, from Perm to the Ssülwa river, and on the banks of the Tschussowa. They were originally fur-traders, but, to defend themselves against the Siberian and Nogaian robbers, were allowed to build forts and, collect troops. They also administered justice, suppressed insurrections, and, in fact, protected the north3

VOL. XII.

east of Russia. They had extended the Moscovite territory to the chain of the Ural; and when the Mongolian conqueror of Siberia, Kutschjum, intended to destroy the settlements of the Stroganoffs, on the Kama, they received, May 30, 1574, a grant of the enemy's country, which allowed them to settle on the banks of the Tobol, to wage war with Kutschjum, and to work mines. They offered five bands of robbers, commanded by revolted Cossack hetmanns, employment in their service, exhorting them to give up their dishonest mode of life. Thus the Cossack Jermack and his companions were induced to leave the Wolga, and, being joined by many additional forces collected by the Stroganoffs, entered Siberia. The country was conquered after three battles, and the taking of Kutschjum's camp by storm. The capital, Sibir, was captured, October 26, 1581. (See the Chronicle of the Stroganoffs, Müller's History of Siberia (in German), and Karamsin's History of Russia.)-A descendant of Anika, baron Gregory Stroganoff, since 1827 a member of the council of the Russian empire, is proprietor of the important salt and iron works in Perm, established by his ancestors. From 1805 to 1808, he was Russian ambassador at Madrid; afterwards at Stockholm, and in the memorable period of 1821, at Constantinople, where he distinguished himself by talent, firmness and humanity, in the most critical conjunctures, and labored strenuously to protect the Greeks and the Greek church.

STROKE OF THE SUN (coup de soleil). When the direct rays of the sun, during the hot season of the year, are allowed to strike for some time upon the skin, an inflammation is produced, accompanied with blisters and sharp pains. After a few days, the inflammation ceases, and the epidermis peels off. If the head is exposed to the sun, the brain is sometimes affected in a similar manner. The blood collects in great quantities, the vessels become swollen, the face and eyes appear red, and violent pains in the head follow. A feverish heat pervades the whole body; lethargy, or suffering which prevents sleep, apoplexy, with or without extravasation of blood, or an inflammation of the blood ensues, and often terminates fatally. Exposure by sleeping in the sun is particularly dangerous.

STROMBOLI. (See Lipari Islands.)

STRONG, Caleb, LL. D., a governor of Massachusetts, was born in 1744, at Northampton, in that state. He gradu

ated at Harvard university, in 1764, and, after studying law, commenced its practice in his native place. In the beginning of the revolution, he took an active part in the cause of liberty. In 1775, he was a member of the committee of safety, and, the following year, of the state legislature. Of the convention which formed a constitution for the state in 1779, he was also a member, and, on the organization of the government, was elected a senator. Two years afterwards, he was offered a seat on the bench of the supreme court, but declined it. In 1787, he was chosen a member of the convention which framed the constitution of the U. States, and likewise of the state convention by which it was adopted. When the general government went into operation, he was chosen a senator in congress. In 1800, he was chosen governor of Massachusetts, and continued in that station for seven consecutive years. In 1812, he was reelected to it, and retained it until 1816. He then retired from public life, and died in November, 1820. In the discharge of all the various functions with which he was intrusted, governor Strong was distinguished for wisdom, uprightness, and patriotism, whilst he possessed, in an equally eminent degree, the virtues adapted especially to private life. He was an accomplished scholar, jurist and statesman.

STRONG BEER. (See Brewing.) STRONTITES; a peculiar earth, discovered in 1793, and thus named by doctor Hope, of Edinburgh, in allusion to its having been first noticed in a mineral brought from Strontian, in Argyleshire. Klaproth examined the mineral the same year, without a knowledge of the experiments of doctor Hope, and called the earth strontian. Pure strontites is of a grayish-white color, possesses a pungent, acrid taste, and, when powdered in a mortar, the dust that rises irritates the lungs and nostrils. It is an unusually heavy earth, approaching barytes in specific gravity. It requires rather more than 160 parts of water at 60° to dissolve it; but of boiling water much less. On cooling, it crystallizes in thin, transparent, quadrangular plates, seldom exceeding a quarter of an inch in length, and frequently adhering together. These crystals contain about 68 parts in 100 of water; are soluble in little more than twice their weight of boiling water. The solution of strontites has the property of converting vegetable blues to green. It tinges the flame of a candle of a beautiful red color. The experiment may be made by putting

a little of the salt composed of nitric acid and strontites into the wick of a lighted candle, or by setting fire to alcohol holding muriate of strontites in solution.* Sir H. Davy decomposed this earth by means of the same processes as he employed in the decomposition of the other earths. To the metallic base of it he gave the name of strontium, which is a white, solid metal, much heavier than water, and bears a close resemblance to barium in its properties. When exposed to the air, or when thrown into water, it rapidly absorbs oxygen, and is converted into strontian. The salts of strontites are in general more soluble than the salts of barytes, but less so than the salts of lime. The sulphate of strontites is of a pure white color, and is not sensibly soluble in water. Anhydrous nitrate of strontites may be prepared by dissolving carbonate of strontites in nitric acid, evaporating the solution to dryness, redissolving and evaporating slowly, till the salt crystallizes. It crystallizes in regular octahedrons, which are perfectly transparent. It is soluble in little more than its own weight of water, at the temperature of 60°; but is insoluble in alcohol. The hydrous nitrate of strontites is formed occasionally, when a solution of nitrate of strontites, sufficiently concentrated, is set aside for crystallization. Its crystals are oblique, rhombic prisms. About one quarter of its weight is water. The carbonate of strontites is slightly soluble in water impregnated with carbonic acid. It is easily formed by pouring an alkaline carbonate into a solution of nitrate of strontites. Muriate of strontites is formed by dissolving carbonate of strontites in muriatic acid, and concentrating the solution till it crystallizes. The crystals are very long needles, consisting, most commonly, of six-sided prisms. Water, at the temperature of 60°, dissolves one and a half times its weight of this salt. Boiling water dissolves any quantity whatever. The crystals slowly deliquesce in a moist atmosphere. When heated, they undergo the watery fusion, and then are reduced to a white powder. In a strong red heat, it melts into a liquid.

Native salts of strontites.-1. Celestine is found in right rhombic prisms of 104°— the primitive form of the species-which

The beautiful red fire, which is now so frequently used at the theatres, is composed of the following ingredients40 parts dry nitrate of strontites, 13 parts of finely powdered sulphur, 5 parts of chlorate of potash, and 4 parts of sulphuret of antimony. No other kind of mixture than rubbing together on a paper is required.

are sometimes terminated by dihedral summits, and also have their acute lateral edges truncated, besides presenting various other partial modifications. Cleavage takes place readily, parallel with all the faces of the primary figure; lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous, sometimes, also, a little to pearly, upon the lateral faces of the prism; color white, passing to sky and smalt-blue; also reddish-white; transparent or translucent; brittle; hardness between calcareous spar and fluor; specific gravity 3.8. Besides occurring in erfect crystals, celestine is found in broad, oliated, in columnar and fibrous masses, as well as compact; the latter, however, appears to be a mixture of celestine and common limestone. It is composed of strontites 56, and sulphuric acid 42. Before the blow-pipe, it decrepitates and melts, without perceptibly coloring the flame, into a white, friable enamel. Reduced to powder, it phosphoresces upon red-hot iron. Celestine is most commonly found in kidney-shaped masses, disseminated through the more recent limestones, sandstones and amygdaloidal rocks. It also occurs in gypsum rocks, along with marl. Beautiful crystals, of a prismatic form and massive columnar varieties, occur in the sulphur mines of Sicily; also, under the same circumstances, at Bex, in Switzerland, and near Cadiz, in Spain. Tabular crystals and lamellar masses are found at Monte Viale, and in the Bristol channel, in England. But the most magnificent crystals come from Strontian island, in lake Erie. Handsome blue foliated specimens are also found at Lockport, in New York. It is also found in several other countries.-2. Strontianite is found regularly crystallized in the form of six-sided prisms, modified on the edges, and terminated in a pyramid. It affords, on cleavage, a right rhombic prism for its primary form, whose angles are 117° 32′ and 62° 28. But regular crystals are very uncommon. Lustre vitreous, slightly inclining to resinous; color asparagus or apple-green, pale yellowish-brown, yellow and gray; white; streak white; transparent or translucent; hardness intermediate between calc-spar and fluor; specific gravity 3.6. Strontianite is found, for the most part, in fibrous masses, the fibres slightly diverging. It is composed of

It is soluble with effervescence in the muriatic and nitric acids; and paper dipped into this solution, and afterwards dried, will burn with a red flame. It melts before the blow-pipe, and intumesces, at the same time phosphorescing with a red light. It is dissolved by borax, with a violent effervescence, into a clear globule. Strontianite occurs in metallic veins, traversing primitive and transition mountains. It is found at Strontian, in Scotland; at Bräunsdorf, in Saxony; at Leogang, in Salzburg; and also in Peru.

STROPHADES; four small, rocky islands in the Mediterranean, west of the Peloponnesus; according to the ancient poets, the residence of the Harpies. The largest abounds in olives and other fruits, and produces a little corn, hardly sufficient for its few inhabitants; 26 miles south of Zante; lon. 21° 12′ E.; lat. 37° 29′ N.

STROPHE (from the Greek or po¢n, from Grow, I turn); a systematic union of several verses. According to the prevailing metre in the verses, strophes are called alcaic, Asclepiadæan, &c. The dithyrambus with the Greeks was confined to no precise rhythm, and rolled along without any division into strophes But the hymns and choruses, with which the tragedies were interspersed, consisted mostly of long strophes and antistrophes, of uniform measure, with which, also, sometimes alternated pro-odes, mesodes, or epodes, of various measure. The single verses of such poems, considered

as

mere members of strophes, were called cola. As the length of the verses is determined by the number of feet, so the length of strophes is determined by the number of cola. Monocola are lyric poems, in which verse of a uniform character is used, without division into strophes. Dicola are poems in which the strophes contain verses of but two different kinds. Sometimes these verses interchange in equal number: sometimes two or three verses of the same kind are followed by one of a shorter measure. So there are tricola, tetracola, &c. The system of strophes, antistrophes, &c., appears to be most developed in the dramatic choruses of the Greeks. The singing of the strophes on the stage, was accompanied with a motion or turn from right to left, towards the images of the gods placed on the sides of the orchestra (in the ancient sense of this word); but the singing of the antistrophe, with a contrary motion, from the left to the right; hence the appellations of strophe and

antistrophe, which seem to have been given to these performances of the dramatic chorus alone, as ode and antode were applied to the song, unaccompanied with mimic representations. The chorus, originally consisting of fifty persons, but, by degrees, reduced to fifteen, was sometimes divided, for the purpose of singing the strophe and antistrophe, into two semi-choruses. In the epode, these were again united. The motions were those of a rhythmic dance, and therefore accompanied by flutes, by which the movement of the verse and that of the dancers were made to harmonize, as appears from the circumstance that the leader of the chorus beat, or indicated time, with shoes, the soles of which were covered with iron.

STROZZI, Philip, a celebrated Florentine patriot, one of the richest citizens of Florence in the early part of the sixteenth century, was allied by marriage with the Medici, but was too much attached to the ancient republican constitution to acquiesce in the domination of that house. When the sovereignty was assumed by Alessandro de' Medici, he joined the party which aimed at restoring a free government. Their application for support, to the emperor Charles V, being unattended to, Strozzi induced Lorenzo de' Medici to assassinate the duke. The only result of this action was the immediate succession of Cosmo, whom he opposed at the head of a body of troops; but, being defeated at the battle of Marona, he was made prisoner. Apprehending that he should be put to the torture, to force a disclosure of his accomplices, he anticipated the trial by a voluntary death, with a poniard. Having first traced, with the point of it, the line from Virgil-Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor! he pierced his breast, and immediately expired (1538).

STRUENSEE and BRANDT. John Frederic, count of Struensee, born at Halle, in 1737, after having completed his medical studies, entered upon the practice of physic at Altona, where he formed an acquaintance with the count of RantzauAschberg and Brandt. In 1768, he received the appointment of physician to Christian VII, king of Denmark, whom he accompanied on his travels through Germany, England and France. After Christian's marriage with Caroline Matilda (q. v.), a coolness arose between the royal pair, of which the queen-dowager took advantage to promote the interests of her son, Christian's half brother. The

birth of a crown prince, the present king of Denmark (see Frederic VI), widened the breach between Caroline and the queendowager, without reconciling Christian to his wife. The nation was divided into two great parties-that of the king, at the head of which was the young count Holk, the royal favorite, and that of the queen-dowager, at Friedensburg. Caroline Matilda aimed at effecting the removal of Holk, with the hope of regaining the king's favor, while Holk endeavored to increase the distance between her and the king. Thinking Struensee to be as warmly opposed to the queen as he was himself, he advised Christian to employ him in his messages to the queen. But this proved the ruin of Holk: the king became more and more attached to Struensee, and the queen, who observed the change, and contrasted the respectful deportmen: of Struensee with the arrogance of the favorite, soon admitted him to her confidence; and he effected a reconciliation between her and the king. Struensee now pursued his ambitious plans with redoubled zeal. Bernstorf (q. v.) was removed; Brandt succeeded Holk as director of the theatre and maître des plaisirs, and the friends of the queen were brought into office. To secure his influence, Struensee endeavored to occupy the king with amusements, and particularly to prevent him from communicating directly with his ministers. In 1770, at the instigation of Struensee, the king abolished the council of state, establishing, in place of it, a committee of conference, consisting of the heads of the different departments of the administration, who were only occasionally assembled, and had neither rank nor influence. This measure threw all authority into the hands of the queen and the favorite, and roused the indignation of the Danish nobility, which had enjoyed a seat and vote in the council. Struensee next procured the removal of the old ministers; and all affairs were now administered in the name of the king, by his personal attendants. But the favorite had neither prudence nor firmness to support him in this situation. He became overbearing and impatient of contradiction, and, his attempts to introduce reformations in the finances, the army, law, &c., raised him up many enemies. He now caused himself to be created count, and, not satisfied with this, procured the dignity of cabinet-minister, with such powers as no Danish minister had ever before possessed. When his enemies attempted to expose

his usurpations, the freedom of the press, which he had himself introduced, was subjected to restrictions. But the friends of Struensee were already becoming indisposed towards him, and the people began to show symptoms of dissatisfaction. Struensee was conscious of his danger, and took some precautions to defend himself. But on the night of Jan. 16, 1772, the queen, the favorite, Brandt, and their other partisans, were seized. The officer who commanded the guard (an old enemy of Struensee) had led his officers into the palace, declaring that the king had commanded him to arrest the queen. Count Rantzau-Aschberg then penetrated to the chamber of the king, waked him, and told him that his life was in danger, and that he must sign an order which the count presented to him. The feeble king obeyed, and the queen was conducted to Kronenburg. An extraordinary commission was instituted for the trial of Struensee, consisting in part of his personal enemies. The proceedings were pushed with severity; and, on the 25th of April, he was condemned to lose his right hand and his head, his body to be quartered and exposed upon the wheel, and his head and hand to be stuck upon a stake. When informed that the king had confirmed the sentence, he received the news with composure, and was executed on the 28th of April, 1772.-See Höst's Count Struensee and his Ministry (in Danish, 1824, and more complete in German, 1826), and Mémoires de Falkenskiold (Paris, 1826).

STRUTT, Joseph, an English antiquary, born, in 1749, at Springfield, in Essex, was articled to an engraver, and obtained the gold and silver medals of the royal academy. He published, in 1773, his work entitled the Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England (4to.), containing representations of the English monarchs from Edward the Confessor to Henry VIII. This was followed by Horda Angel Cynnan, or a complete view of the manners, customs, arms, habits, &c., of the English from the arrival of the Saxons to the times of Henry VIII, &c. (1774, 1775 and 1776, 3 vols., with 157 plates). In 1777 and 1778, he published a Chronicle of England, which he meant to extend to six volumes, but dropped the design for want of encouragement. His Biographical Dictionary of Engravers appeared in 1785 and 1786, in two volumes, and his Complete View of the Dresses and Habits of the People of England, &c., in 1796 and 1799 (4to.). In 1801, he

published his last and favorite work, entitied the Sports and Pastimes of the People of England (with forty plates, new octavo edition, with 140 plates, 1827). He died in London, in October, 1802, aged fifty-three. His modest character scarcely met, during his life-time, with the eucouragement it deserved. He left some manuscripts, from which have since been published his Queen Hoo Hall, a romance, and Ancient Times, a drama (4 vols., 12mo.); also the Test of Guilt, or Traits of Ancient Superstition, a dramatic tale.

STRYCHNIA; a vegetable alkali, found in the fruit of two species of the strychnos. It is obtained by the following process: The bean is rasped down as small as possible, and exposed to the action of nitric ether in a Papin's digester. What remains after the digestion is treated with alcohol, and the alcohol is evaporated to dryness, and the residue dissolved in water. To the aqueous solution potash is added, which throws down the strychnia in the form of a white crystalline precipitate. This alkali has also been extracted from the upas poison. The properties of strychnia, in a state of perfect purity, are as follows: It has a crystalline structure (often presenting four-sided prisms, terminated by four-sided pyramids), is of a white color, has an intolerably bitter taste, and leaves a metallic impression in the mouth; it is destitute of odor, and is not altered by exposure to the air; it is neither fusible nor volatile, except at temperatures at which it undergoes decomposition. It is very little soluble in cold water, 100,000 parts of that liquid dissolving only fifteen parts of the alkali; but it dissolves in 2500 times its weight of boiling water. When it is introduced into the stomach, it acts with prodigious energy. A locked jaw is induced in a very short time, and the animal is speedily destroyed. Half a grain of strychnia blown into the throat of a rabbit, proved fatal in five minutes, and brought on locked jaw in two minutes. A great variety of salts of this alkali may be obtained by treating it with the different acids, and by double decomposition.--Sulphate of strychnia crystallizes in cubes, and is soluble in less than ten times its weight of cold water. It consists of sulphuric acid 90.5 and strychnia 9.5. Muriate of strychnia crystallizes in very small needles, and is more soluble in water than the sulphate. Nitrate of strychnia acts with more violence upon animals than the pure alkali. Solutions of the salts of strychnia, when