work which marks the complete transition from Anglo-Norman to English literature, is that of Chaucer (q. v.), whose Canterbury Tales were borrowed from the same sources as the narratives of the Italian novellists and the French fabliers,or immediately from these latter productions themselves. (On the sources of Chaucer, see Ritson's edition of Warton's History of English Poetry. Of a different character from the foregoing, are the fairy tales and popular stories of the nursery. Of the former, we have given an account in the article Fairies. Our common nursery tales are found to exist in the popular traditions of all the Teutonic nations, and seem to be of much higher antiquity than romances and poems of much greater pretensions. "Jack the Giant-Killer and Tom Thumb," observes an English writer, "landed in England with Hengist and Horsa;" and the brothers Grimm (q.v.), who have recently thrown much light on nursery literature in their Kinder-und Haus-Märchen (second edition, 3 vols., 1820), do not hesitate to refer the origin of these stories to the Scandinavian sagas. See, on this subject, the article Antiquities of Nursery Literature, in the Quarterly Review, volume twenty-first.

TALESMEN. (See Jury.) TALIACOTIUS, or TAGLIACOZZI. (See Rhinoplastic.)

TALIESIN; the most celebrated of the ancient British poets, and therefore termed Pen Beirdd, or the chief of the bards. He flourished between 520 and 570; and many of his compositions are extant, and have been printed in the Welsh Archæ ology.

He was ranked with the two Merlins, under the appellation of the three principal Christian bards. Tradition represents him as an orphan exposed by the side of a river, where he was found by Elfin, the son of Gwyddno, by whom he was educated and patronised. He studied in the school of the famous Cadog at Llanveithin, in Glamorganshire, and, in the mature part of his life, was the bard of Urien Rheged, a Welsh prince, as appears by many of his poems addressed to that chieftain. (See Bard.)

TALISMAN (Arabic, figure) is a figure cast or cut in metal or stone, and made, with certain superstitious ceremonies, at some particular moment of time, as when a certain star is at its culminating point, or when certain planets are in conjunction. The talisman thus prepared is supposed to exercise extraordinary influences over the bearer, particularly in averting

disease. In a more extensive sense, the word is used to denote any object of nature or art, the presence of which checks the power of spirits or demons, and defends the wearer from their malice. The amulet (q. v.) is much the same as the talisman, though, according to some, it is more limited in its virtues. As they were both used most frequently, and, perhaps, originally, to avert disease, we find them playing a conspicuous part in the history of medicine, among all nations, from the earliest to the most recent periods. The nature of the talisman has been very different among different nations. The Egyptians made use of images of their gods and of sacred animals, such as the ibis and the scarabæus; the Greeks used little tablets, inscribed with the Ephesian words, &c.; the Romans employed various idols, which they suspended upon the body by chains; the Arabians and Turks make use of sentences from the Koran; and we also find, in the East, medals of particular metals, struck under a particular constellation, and marked with magical signs; in the middle ages, relics, consecrated candles, and rods, rosaries, images of saints, &c., were employed, and still are, in some parts of Christendom; among some savage nations, the fetich (q. v.), and, among the American Indians (see Indians), the medicine, are of a similar character. In the middle ages, astrology, and the knowledge of the virtues of talismans and amulets, formed an important part of medical science; and the quacks of modern times sometimes have recourse to similar means. (See Magic.)

TALLAHASSEE, the seat of government of Florida Territory, is situated in Middle Florida, about twenty-five miles north of Apalachee bay (lat. 30° 28′ N.; lon. 84° 36′ W.), and is 870 miles from Washington. The position of this town was fixed upon as the seat of government in 1824. It was divided into lots in 1825, and immediately incorporated as a city. In two years after the erection of the first building, its population was 800. In 1830, it contained about 1200; and the county of Lean, in which it is situated, contained 6493. The situation of Tallahassee is remarkably pleasant, and is supposed to be healthy. The ground is considerably elevated, and the country around is high and rolling. St. Marks, situated near the head of the bay, is the nearest seaport. An elevated chain of rolling hills bounds the shores of the Mexican gulf; and Tallahassee is three miles north of this ridge. The country around

it is generally fertile, and is suited to the cultivation of sugar. At present, it is mostly covered with oak, hickory, pine, wild cherry, gum, ash, dogwood, mahogany, and magnolia. The mahogany is nearly equal to that from Honduras. Fish abound in the neighboring lakes, and game is abundant in the forests.

TALLART, Camille d'Hostun, duke de, marshal of France, descended of an ancient family of Dauphiny, was born in 1652, entered young into the army, and, after serving under the great Condé in Holland, and under Turenne in Alsace, was engaged in the brilliant campaigns of 1674 and 1675. He distinguished himself subsequently on various occasions, and, in 1693, was made a lieutenant-general. In 1697, he was sent ambassador to England, to negotiate concerning the succession to the crown of Spain on the death of Charles II. In 1702, Tallart was appointed to the command of the French troops on the Rhine, and, soon after, was honored with a marshal's staff. He subsequently defeated the imperialists before Landau, and, having taken that place after a short siege, announced his success to Louis XIV in the following terms: "I have taken more standards than your majesty has lost soldiers." In 1704, he was opposed to Marlborough; and, being taken prisoner at the battle of Blenheim, was carried to England, where he remained seven years. On his return to France, in 1712, he was. created a duke; and, in 1726, was appointed secretary of state. His death took place in 1728.

TALLEYRAND, Charles Maurice de Périgord, prince de, a distinguished French statesman, and one of the founders of French liberty, is descended from an ancient family, to which, in the middle ages, belonged the sovereign counts of Perigord. The celebrated princess des Ursins, who played so conspicuous a part at the court of Philip V of Spain, during the war of the Spanish succession, was his maternal grandmother. Previously to the fall of Napoleon, he was known as the prince of Beneventum, but since that event, has been styled prince Talleyrand. He was born at Paris, in 1754, and, being designed for the church, was placed at the seminary of Saint Sulpice. The young abbé de Périgord was distinguished for his wit, his insinuating manners, his talent for business, and his insight into character, and, in 1780, was appointed agent-general of the clergy. At the breaking out of the revolution, he was

bishop of Autun, and had already displayed so much acuteness and dexterity in seizing the hidden clew of affairs, that Mirabeau, in his secret correspondence with Berlin, pronounced him one of the most ingenious and powerful minds of the age. This judgment has proved prophetical. Elected deputy of the clergy of his diocese to the states-general, in 1789, he early foresaw, or rather contributed to guide and hasten, the change of public opinion, and, on the 19th of June, voted in favor of the union of the clergy with the deputies of the third estate. He was soon after named one of the committee on the constitution, and proposed the abolition of tithes. In the second committee on the constitution, he likewise brought forward a plan for applying the church domains to the public use. In the beginning of 1790, the bishop of Autun was chosen president of the assembly; and the proposition for establishing a uniform system of weights and measures emanated from him. At the celebration of the anniversary of the 14th of July, he officiated at the altar of the country; and he was one of the first to take the constitutional oath imposed on the clergy. With the bishops of Lydda and Babylon, the bishop of Autun consecrated the first constitutional bishops, and was excommunicated by the pope, Pius VI. Talleyrand immediately resigned his bishopric, and was chosen member of the directory of the department of Paris. In 1792, he was sent on a secret mission to England; and, while the Jacobins at home were denouncing him as the agent of the court, the emigrants in England accused him of being the emissary of the Jacobins; and the English minister ordered him to quit the country within twentyfour hours. M. de Talleyrand therefore retired to the U. States, where he occupied himself in commercial business. In 1795, the convention repealed the decree against him, and, in 1797, we find him among the founders of the constitutional society established at the Hôtel de Salm, where he read a memoir on the advantages of colonizing the coasts of Barbary, and another on the commerce of the U. States. His influence soon began to appear in public affairs; and, in July of that year, he was appointed minister of foreign affairs to the directory. It was at this time that the commissioners of the U. States (Gerry, Marshall and Pinckney) to France were treated with so much indignity, and made the subject of a singular intrigue, in which the name of Tal

eyrand was compromised.* The influence of Mad. de Staël, which had been employed in restoring him to France, had also been the principal instrument in procuring his nomination to the ministry; but the new minister, assailed on all sides by denunciations, threats and complaints, resigned his portfolio in July, 1799, after having published a defence of his conduct, entitled Eclaircissements donnés par le Citoyen Talleyrand à ses Concitoyens. Lucien Bonaparte was one of his most bitter assailants at this time; and a mutual hatred has ever since prevailed between them. The return of general Bonaparte from Egypt again restored the ex-minister to activity. He was one of the chief, agents in the revolution of the 18th of Brumaire (q. v.), and was, immediately after, recalled to the ministry of foreign affairs. Here begins the most important period of his distinguished political career, a second period of which is formed by the events of 1814-15, and a third dates from the last French revolution, in 1830. The negotiations of Luneville (q. v.) and Amiens (q. v.) were conducted under his direction. From this period dates his great fortune, which has, however, suffered repeated shocks. Availing himself of his official information on secrets of state, he speculated largely in the funds. Having procured a brief from the pope, releasing him from his clerical vows, he immediately married Mrs. Grant, his mistress. The refusal of the first consul to admit her to court had nearly produced a rupture between Bonaparte and Talleyrand, which was avoided only by the former yielding to the wishes of the latter on that point. When Napoleon assumed the imperial title, M. de Talleyrand was appointed grand chamberlain of the empire, and, June 5, 1805, was raised to the dignity of sovereign prince of Beneventum. His credit with the emperor began, however, to suffer; and, in 1807, he was removed from the ministry of foreign affairs, but, at the same time, was promoted to the post of vice-grand-elector, which

*See, on the subject of this singular affair, Lyman's Diplomacy of the United States, vol. i, ch. 8 (2d edition, Boston, 1828).

+ The following story is told of this lady:-M. de Talleyrand, having one day invited M. Denon, the celebrated traveller, to dine with him, told his wife to read the work of their guest, indicating its place in his library. Madame de Talleyrand unluckily got hold, by mistake, of the Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, which she ran over in great haste, and, at dinner, began to question Denon about his shipwreck, his island, &c., and finally about his man Friday.

gave him a seat in the public councils. His opposition to the invasion of Spain completed his disgrace, and a war of epigrams and raillery was carried on in the saloons between the conqueror of Europe and his disgraced minister. The latter was threatened with arrest; and, in 1814, when Napoleon left Paris to defend the French soil, he made an attempt to conciliate the prince, by pretending a confidence in him which he did not feel, and appointed him one of the council of regency. The republican and imperial exminister was placed at the head of the provisional government, April 1st, 1814, and governed France until the arrival of the comte d'Artois. (See France.) The influence of the prince of Beneventum with the foreign powers is known to have been very great; but the secret history of his connexion with the Bourbons remains yet to be explained. The emperor Alexander lodged at his hôtel; and, on the 12th of May, Talleyrand was once more named minister of foreign affairs, and in June was raised to the peerage under the title of prince de Talleyrand. Towards the close of the year, he was sent as plenipotentiary of France to the congress of Vienna. Napoleon made some unsuccessful attempts to attach him to his cause in the hundred days. The prince, too sagacious to trust to promises dictated by necessity, or faithful to the new cause which he had espoused, was one of the most zealous promoters of the declarations of March 13 and 25 against the emperor, and, joining Louis XVIII at Ghent, he returned to Paris with the king. Louis again conferred on him the portfolio of foreign affairs, with the title of president of the council (prime minister); but Talleyrand refused to sign the treaty so humiliating to France, and resigned his post in three months from his appointment. Pursued by the hatred of the émigrés, stigmatized as a traitor by the liberal party, and accused of being the cause of the death of the prince d'Enghien (q. v.), he now lost all influence in public affairs, though he still retained the post of grand chamberlain to the king. In 1818, he once more appeared upon the scene of politics, but in the new character of leader of the opposition in the chamber of peers. Here he distinguished himself in defence of the constitution against the gradual encroachments of the royal power. In 1827, he was assaulted by the marquis de Maubreuil, who struck him a blow on the face, which knocked him down. The reason assigned by Maubreuil for this

attack was that he had been employed by the prince to assassinate Napoleon, and had not been rewarded for his labor in making the attempt. (See Maubreuil.) In 1828, his fortune suffered considerably by the failure of a great Paris house. After the revolution of 1830, the prince de Talleyrand was sent ambassador to London, where he has been the representative of France in the conferences between the five powers, for settling the affairs of Europe. (See the sequel of the article France, in the Appendix to this work.) Since the death of Casimir Perier, in 1832, he has returned (June) to France, and, it has been rumored, would be called to take the presidency of the council. As a statesman and minister, prince Talleyrand can be neither compared with Sully, nor Richelieu, nor Mazarin, nor Colbert; he seems to be peculiar in his power and his address. While Napoleon possessed the genius of victory, Talleyrand possesses the genius of politics; and both together were able to bridle and annihilate the revolution. Engaging without danger in all the catastrophes which have occurred, hovering unseen over the agitations which he has himself assisted to produce, variable as fortune herself, he seems to be the master of ceremonies to the revolutions which have followed each other in France with such rapidity during the last forty years. His character and real agency are perhaps not yet well understood, and must be drawn by his own hand.*

TALLIEN, John Lambert, a French republican statesman, born at Paris in 1769, was the son of the porter to the marquis de Bercy, to whom he was indebted for his education. He commenced his political career as secretary to the deputy Broustaret, and then published a daily journal, called Ami du Citoyen, which was affixed to the walls of the metropolis. * In answer to some remarks which fell from lord Londonderry concerning prince Talley rand, in the British house of lords (Oct., 1831), lord Wellington observed, that none of the great measures which had been resolved upon at Vienna and Paris, had been concerted or carried on without the intervention of that illustrious person. "In all the transactions in which I have been engaged with prince Talleyrand, no man could have conducted himself with more firmness and ability in regard to his own country, or with more uprightness and honor in all his communications with the ministers of other countries, than prince Talleyrand. No man's public and private character has ever been so much belied as those of that illustrious individual." Lord Holland added, that no man's private character had been more shamefully traduced, andno man's public character more mistaken and misrepresented, than the private and public character of prince Talleyrand.

The Jacobins furnished the expenses of printing this paper, the object of which was to excite the indignation of the populace against Louis XVI and his ministers. Tallien soon became one of the most popular men of the revolutionary party, and was deeply concerned in the terrible commotions of the 10th of August, at which time he was secretary of the commune which had installed itself at the Hôtel de Ville, and which continued its sittings in spite of the assembly, becoming the centre and origin of the intrigues and massacres of that disastrous period. Being nominated a deputy to the convention, from the department of Seine and Oise, he often mounted the tribune, and was the constant advocate of violent measures.

In the session of December 15, 1792, he strongly urged the immediate trial of Louis XVI, objected to allowing him counsel, and added new charges to the accusation against him. He afterwards voted for his death, and against an appeal to the people; and on the day of execution, January 21, 1793, he was president of the convention. He took part in most of the sanguinary proceedings which occurred during the ascendency of Robespierre; and, after defending Marat, assisting in the destruction of the Girondists, and becoming the advocate of the infamous Rossignol, he was sent on a mission to Bordeaux, where he showed himself the worthy associate of Carrier, Lebon and Collot d'Herbois. He was checked in this sanguinary career by the influence of madame de Fontenay, a woman remarkable for her personal beauty, who, having been imprisoned at Bordeaux, as she was going to join her family in Spain, owed her life to the compassion of Tallien. (See Chimay.) He took her with him to Paris, whither he went to defend himself before the convention against the charge of moderantism. After the fall of Danton and his party, Tallien perceived that he should become one of the next victims of Robespierre, if he did not strike the first blow. Accordingly, at the sitting of the convention of the ninth of Thermidor, 1794, he ascended the tribune, and, after an animated picture of the atrocities which had taken place, and which he ascribed to Robespierre, he turned to the bust of Brutus, and, invoking the genius of that patriot, drew a dagger from his girdle, and swore that he would plunge it into the heart of Robespierre, if the representatives of the people had not courage to order his immediate arrest. On the morrow, Tallien had the

satisfaction to announce to his colleagues that their enemies had perished on the scaffold. (See Robespierre.) Being elected a member of the committee of public safety, the Jacobins replaced his name on their list. At this period he married his protégée, madame de Fontenay. He took a part in all the proceedings of the assembly, and used his power and influence to promote the interests of justice and humanity. This was the most honorable period of his life; but the recrimination and opposition which he experienced prevented him from enjoying tranquillity. In July, 1795, he was sent, with extensive powers, to the army on the coasts of Brittany; but after the victory of the republicans at Quiberon, he returned to Paris. He subsequently became a member of the council of five hundred, under the constitution of the year III; but his influence gradually declined, and he was at length reduced to such a state of political insignificance, that he thought proper to retire to private life. Domestic uneasiness induced him to wish to leave France; and he followed Bonaparte to Egypt, as one of the savans attached to the expedition. He became a member of the Egyptian institute, and editor of the Décade Egyptienne, printed at Cairo; besides being administrator of the national domains. After Bonaparte left Egypt, general Menou treated Tallien harshly, and obliged him to return to France. The vessel in which he sailed was captured by the English, and he was taken to London, where he received much attention from the leaders of the whig party. The duchess of Devonshire having sent Tallien her portrait, enriched with diamonds, he kept the portrait, but returned the diamonds. On revisiting his native country, he discovered that he had lost his wife, as well as the favor of Bonaparte, who was then rising to sovereign power. He appears to have been reduced to distress, but at length obtained, through Fouché and Talleyrand, the office of French consul at Alicant. He died at Paris in 1820. Madame Tallien, having been divorced from her husband (by whom she had a daughter named Thermidor), was married, in 1805, to Joseph de Caraman, prince de Chimay.

TALLOW; animal fat melted and separated from the fibrous matter mixed with it. (See Fat.) Its quality depends partly on the animal from which it has been prepared, and partly on the care taken in its purification. It is firm, brittle, and has a peculiar heavy odor. When pure, it is white and nearly insipid; but the tallow

of commerce has usually a yellowish tinge, and is divided, according to the degree of its purity and consistence, into candle and soap tallow. It is manufactured into candles and soap, and is extensively used in the dressing of leather, and in various processes of the arts. There were exported from Russia, in 1831, 4,091,544 poods (63 to a ton) of tallow. Large quantities are also exported from South America.

TALLOW-TREE (stillingia sebifera). This interesting tree is a native of C It belongs to the natural family euphorbiacea. The branches are long and flexible; the foliage so much resembles that of the Lombardy poplar, that it might readily be mistaken, were the leaves serrated. The flowers are inconspicuous, and disposed in straight, terminal spikes. The capsules are hard, smooth and brown, divided internally into three cells, each containing a nearly hemispherical seed, which is covered with a sebaceous and very white substance. At the close of the season, the leaves turn bright red, and as the capsules fall off, leaving the pure white seeds suspended to filaments, the tree presents a very beautiful appearance. From a remote period, this tree has furnished the Chinese with the material out of which they make their candles. The capsules and seeds are crushed together, and boiled; the fatty matter is skimmed as it rises, and condenses on cooling. The candles made of this substance are very white; and red ones are also manufactured by the addition of vermilion. Sometimes, three pounds of linseed oil and a little wax are mixed with ten of this substance, to give consistence. The tallow-tree is cultivated in the vicinity of Charleston and Savannah, and, indeed, is almost naturalized in the maritime parts of Carolina.

TALMA, François Joseph, the greatest tragic actor of France in our day, was born at Paris in 1763, but passed his youth in England, where his father practised as a dentist. He was sent to Paris to complete his studies; and his taste for the theatre was awakened by the dramatic masterpieces and the performances of distinguished actors which he here witnessed. The susceptibility of his temperament showed itself early. While at school, he and some of his companions performed a tragedy, in which he had to describe the last moments of a friend condemned to death by his father: the situation affected him so powerfully that he burst into a flood of tears, which continued to flow