The Nobility of the Empire have been, since 1785, in possession of the right of holding representative assemblies every third year. According to the Imperial Patent issued in that year by Catherine II., the nobles in every province form a corporation under an elective president or marshal, to whom is joined a government commissioner. The governor of the Province is not allowed to be present at the meetings. These representative assemblies have their own seals, archives, secretaries, treasurers, and permanent committee, the latter of which will unite with deputies of the towns to examine the estimates and allotment of contributions to be made by the country. These assemblies have recently become of greater importance than they were formerly. Those in the western provinces of Russia, where nearly all the nobles are of Polish descent, took an active part in the national movements of the kingdom of Poland. More recently, several assemblies of Russia proper petitioned the Emperor for the introduction of a representative form of Government into Russia.

The Russian Empire comprises one-seventh of the territorial part of the globe, and about one twenty-sixth part of its entire surface. The area of the empire, according to an estimate made by Mr. Koppen of the Academy of Sciences of Petersburg, is as follows:

The religious statistics of Caucasian Russia have not yet been ascertained. In Finland, the orthodox Greek Church had, in 1860, 40,161 souls; nearly all the others were Lutherans. Russia proper has three cities with a population of more than 100,000: St. Petersburg, with 520,131; Moscow, with 336,370; Odessa, with 104,169. It has eight cities with a population from 50,000 to 100,000; forty-three cities with a population from 20,000 to 50,000; and 101 cities with a population from 10,000 to 20,000. A budget containing all the receipts and ex

* Equal to 7,612,874 English square miles,

II. Delinquent receipts.

Rouble 43,529.521

...

169,157,162

18,686,666

50,700,218

88,675,244

8,081,888

318,880,644

15,707,770 18,829,446

347,867,860

57,487,217

1,165,873

5,133,516

7,755,444

2,102,593

115,432.390

18,029,798

87.219.756

9,149.892

431.619

8,846,244

5,889,735

18.164.191

829.928

6,335.311

292.589

8,266.198

82,887,278

330,598.414

4,000,000

III. Expenditures covered by special receipts... 18,329,446

847,867,560

According to an official statement, the consolidated public debt amounted on January 1, 1862, to 556,141,949 roubles, and the floating debt, on Jan. 1, 1861, to 1,062,648,719 roubles.

The exportations amounted, in 1861, to 177,179,000 roubles, and the importations to 167,111,000. The number of arrivals in the Russian ports was, in 1861, 10,634 vessels, with a tonnage of 1,024,103, and the number of clearances, 10,739 vessels, with a tonnage of 1,025,972. Of the arrivals, 1,956 were British vessels; 1,834 Russian, 1,468 Turkish, 763 Netherlandish, 752 Italian, 558 Norwegian, 483 Danish, 440 Hanoverian, 2,379 of different nations. The merchant marine numbered, in 1859, 1,416 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 172,605 tons, and manned by from 10,000 to 11,000 seamen.

The Russian army consists, in general: 1, of the Active Troops; 2, of the Reserve Troops; 3, of the Irregular Troops. The total strength according to the reports of the War Ministry, was in 1859 as follows:

also, 183,785 Cossacks on furlough, who, in case of war, would serve as reserves. Also, 144,814 men, mostly Bashkirs, who in times of peace are exempt from service on paying a war tax. Altogether, the Government, in time of war, could dispose of about 1,600,000.

The Russian navy, on the 13th June (1st June O. S.), 1862, was composed as follows: Steam Vessels.

79

2

9

Small sidewheel steamers. 68

Total steamers..... .248

Having an aggregate horse-power of 87,007, and 2,887 guns.

18

12

62

Total of steamers and sailing vessels, 310, carrying 3,691 guns. Besides the above, there were three floating batteries and about 300 coasting vessels. The personnel of the fleet on Jan. 1, 1862, was admirals and generals, 95; staff and subaltern officers, 3,245; civil functionaries, 966; soldiers and sailors, 55,216; marine guards and conductors, 169. During the year there was a reduction of 400 in the number of officers, and of 10,000 in the number of soldiers and sailors.

The Polish revolution, which had been the most prominent event in the history of Russia, in 1863, was rapidly drawing to a close after the beginning of the new year. The Vienna "Lloyd" gave the following review of the state of insurrection at the close of 1863:

In

Never were there so many bodies of insurgents in the Government of Lublin as now. Since the battle of Chelm, in the middle of November, the corps of Waligovski, Wierzbicki, Krysinski, Cwiek, Marecki, Szydłowski, Leniewski, Krysinski, Ejtmanowicz, and many others, numbering 5,000 men in all, have been placed under the chief command of Gen. Kruk, who himself is at the head of a body of horse. These, numerous little bands do much damage to the Russian garrisons, which, including those of Zamosc and Iwangrod, number upwards of 18,000 men. the neighboring palatinate of Sandomir, in which Gen. Bossack is the chief commandant, the insurgent corps under Rembojle, Rudowski, and Eminowicz, number 3,000 men. The brilliant assault on the town of Opatow, and Kruk's victories at Ocosienko and Dzialoszyce, prove that the insurgents are in this palatinate more than a match for the Russians, although the latter are upwards of 8,000 strong. In the other palatinates the military forces of the insurrection have to a great extent been absorbed by the civil organization. There are, however, still the little bands of Okuniewski, Nowicki, Pongowski, Korytkowski, Putt Kammer, Szumlanski, Syrewicz, Zychlynski, Gleba, and many others, which harass the Russians by constant skirmishings. In Samogitia the insurgents are again increasing in numbers. They are led by Kolysko, Wyslouch, and Kuszleyko. These little bands amounted in all to about 10,000 men.

Official statements of the Russian Government give the following statistics, relating to the insurrection in Poland: "During the sixteen months of the struggle (January 1863 to April 1864), 30,000 insurgents were killed or severely wounded; 361 were condemned to death by military tribunals, and 85,000 persons less compromised were transported to Siberia. The war contributions levied were six millions of roubles in the kingdom of Poland, three millions in Lithuania, two millions in Volhynia, Podolia, and Kiew. The National Government, on its side, raised the following sums :Six millions in Poland, three millions in Lithuania, two millions in Volhynia, Podolia, and Kiew, two and a half millions in Galicia, and one million in Posnania. The number of Poles who found an asylum abroad is estimated at 10,000.

On March 6th, an imperial manifesto announcing the emancipation of the peasants throughout Poland, was promulgated. Another decree of the same date treats of the organization of the communal administrations on the principle of self-government in Poland, by which all connection between the nobility and peasantry is entirely severed.

On September 20th, an imperial rescript was issued, accompanied by five decrees, containing a series of liberal measures relative to public instruction in Poland, the creation of a university at Warsaw, and the establishment of numerous superior middle and primary schools, and a free school for women. The Poles preserve the use of their national language. For the other nationalities of the kingdom special schools are established, in which their respective idioms will be used. A sixth decree modifies the penal code by mitigating the penalties hitherto inflicted, and abolishes corporeal punishment.

Russian Government for about thirty years, that Another great war which had engaged the against the Circassians, was brought to a close

in 1864. Since the defeat and capture of Schamyl, the chief of the most warlike of the tribes, loosely included under the general name of Circassians, the progress of the Russians has been on the whole steady and irresist ible. Once or twice the brave mountaineers dealt heavy blows, which unduly excited the hopes of their friends in Europe, some of whom were sanguine enough to believe that with a little foreign aid they would be able to make an attack on Southern Russia, that would operate as an important diversion in favor of the insurgent Poles. In November, 1863, the Shapsuhs, under the command of Hadji Thasigussa, who already possessed a distinguished reputation, which he well sustained on this occasion, drove back the Russians several times. But the invading army, which was under the chief command of the Grand-duke Michael, and estimated at over 200,000 men, was too numerous to leave any hope to the Circassians. The last engagement seems to have taken place in April, 1864. The Circassians then gave up the struggle, and, having received permission from the Turkish Government, determined to follow those of their countrymen who, during the preceding five years, had emigrated to Turkey. They severely suffered in this emigration, and thousands of them perished. The Turkish Government made great efforts to assist them, and gave them settlements near the mouths of the Danube.

The pacification of Poland and of the Caucasus was soon followed by the accomplishment of another of the objects of the settled Russian policy, of attaining the supremacy in Asia-the conquest of Toorkistan. The Bombay "Gazette" gives the following account of this campaign: "Before the Caucasus was entirely subjugated, the Russians had already made good their footing in Toorkistan, having taken possession of Khiva, and sent pioneers as far as Bokhara. But they have lately taken the offensive with a force evidently much larger than they ever before entered the field with in this part of Central Asia. The cause of their invasion of the principality of Kokan is not stated, but a strong power, covetous of the territory of a weak neighbor, can always find a convenient excuse for an appeal to arms. Without, however, presuming to determine whether the Russians had or had not real injuries to redress, we think Englishmen in general, both soldiers and politicians, may well take note of the surprising vigor with which the Kokan campaign has been brought to a successful close by the Russians. Fort after fort has been stormed in rapid succession; and the latest advices from Cabul are to the effect that Kokan itself has been taken, and that the Khan, after making submission to the conquerors, has been replaced on his throne as a vassal of the Emperor of Russia. Thus, Russia has already subjugated two of the States of Toorkistan, Khiva and Kokan; of the other two, Bokhara and the Affghan principality of Balkh, the former is

governed by a king who is the chosen ally and friend of the Russians, and who openly maintains the title to Balkh of Sirdar Abdoolrahman Khan, in defiance of the Ameer of Cabul, whose treacherous conduct to Afzul Khan, the father of Abdoolrahman, has made him most unpopular with all the Mussulmans of Central Asia. From the small beginnings, then, of twenty years ago, when the suspicions of Indian politicians of vivid imaginations were first aroused by rumors that here and there a Russian travelling merchant had penetrated within the borders of Toorkistan, Russia has steadily and surely advanced till she is now the most formidable military and political power in Central Asia, with a favorable opportunity presented to her of interfering in Affghan politics, and making her influence paramount in the only still independent State which separates her dominions from those of the Government of British India." The conquest of Toorkistan was followed by an imperial decree organizing the conquered territory into a Russian province.

The years 1863 and 1864 have not only been marked by great military successes, but by internal reforms even more important for the future destinies of the empire. The last vestiges of serfdom are fast disappearing. As a consequence of the emancipation of the peasants, the Government has taken measures for the diffusion of instruction among the agricultural population. An additional budget of 450,000 roubles for the year 1865 has been decreed, so that the budget of Public Instruction now amounts to about 1,300,000 roubles. This supplementary budget provides for the founding of village schools, of eleven new gymnasia (colleges); for the purchase of books, paper, etc., for the poorer peasants; for supplementary payment to schoolmasters and professors; for the purchase of scientific instruments; for the establishment of laboratories and museums; for the reorganization of the University of Warsaw; for the foundation of a polytechnic school, and for other schools for teaching agriculture and horticulture. The Latin system of higher education in the gymnasia has been reorganized, and the most strenuous efforts are being made to raise them to a level with the colleges of Prussia, which are generally recognized as the best of Europe.

But the most important of all the reforms is the introduction of a constitutional form of Government. The first step toward this reform was taken in the Grand Duchy of Finland. On September 18, 1863, the Emperor Alexander opened personally the Diet of the Grand Duchy with a speech, which expressed his confidence in a liberal form of Government, and intimated his design to develop liberal institutions first in Finland, and later in other parts of the empire. The emperor states that his attention had long been engaged with questions of a serious interest to Finland, but that they had to remain in suspense because "their solution demanded the cooperation of the Diet." It was impossi

ble for him to convoke the four estates (nobility, clergy, burghers, peasants) during the first years of his reign, but he had, nevertheless, prepared in the mean time drafts of several laws and other administrative matters, to be laid before the Diet. He declares it to be his desire that hereafter no loan shall be contracted without the participation of the estates of the Grand Duchy, unless a sudden invasion of the country or some other unforeseen public calamity should make it necessary. He further announces that the levying of new taxes will be proposed to the Diet to promote the material prosperity of the nation, and to extend the blessings of public education, and he declares it to be the task of the Diet to decide upon the urgency and extent of these measures." He concludes with recommending to the representatives of the Grand Duchy "to prove, by the dignity, the moderation, and the calmness of their deliberations, that in the hands of a people determined to act in concert with their sovereign for the development of their prosperity, the liberal institutions, far from being a danger, become a guarantee of order and prosperity." At the opening of the Diet there were present 141 deputies of the nobility, 32 deputies of the clergy, 30 representatives of the burghers, and 48 deputies of the peasants.

On January 21, 1864, the official journal of St. Petersburg published an imperial ukase for the organization of the provincial and district representations of Russia, with the exception of the western and Baltic provinces Archangel, Astracan, and Bessarabia. Toward the close of the year the first elections for the new Provincial Diets were held all through Russia, and the opening of the first of the diets was announced to take place in March, 1865.

On December 6, an imperial ukase was issued ordering the Senate to promulgate the law relative to the new organization of the courts of justice, the new penal code, and the laws upon the procedure in civil and criminal affairs, and the powers of justices of the peace, all these laws having received the emperor's sanction.

Several governments (provinces) of Russia suffered frightfully from incendiary fires, which occurred from April to August. The work of the incendiaries commenced at the end of April in the government of Kalouga by the destruction of 54 houses; next at Okhansk 204 houses were burnt. The fires continued in succession at Scrapoul; at Serdobsk, where four-fifths of the town were destroyed; at Mozir, one-half of the houses; at Mologa, more than 200; and at the fair of Nijni-Novgorod 1,500 booths and 148 houses. At Patrofsk there were as many as six fires in the month of June alone, and entire districts of the town were consumed. The powder magazines of Kazan and that of Okhta, near St. Petersburg, were blown up; at Riga two fires occurred one after the other; the same at Tunien, where the finest quarters of the town were entirely destroyed. At Orenburg 600 houses were burnt, and Baki is now only a heap of ruins. During the same space of time four conflagrations took place at St. Petersburg. A great incendiary fire also occurred at Simbirsk. The place was burning for three days, and on the 21st of August the whole was in ruins; the cathedral, the churches, the House of Assembly of the nobles, with its magnificent library, the house of the governor, all the courts of justice, with their archives, etc.; in fact, a great town, inhabited by thirty thousand people, was entirely destroyed.

1861 the once popular but unprincipled President, Santana, privily sold the Republic to the Spanish Government for his own benefit. The inhabitants never gave their consent to this sale. They have made an unrelenting resistance to the army of the invader. Too weak to make any other than a guerrilla warfare, they yet succeeded in compelling the Spaniards to confine themselves to the possession of a few seaport towns. They were powerfully aided by the malarious climate and the mountainous character of the country. The Spanish troops, swept off by fever, shot down in the woods, starved in the town, perished almost as fast as they arrived.

When the Provisional President, General Salcedo, showed himself inclined to negotiate with the Spaniards about submission, his action was promptly repudiated by the principal offi

See ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA for 1863, page 825.

cials at San Domingo, who deposed him from office, and appointed in his place Gen. Gaspar Polanco. The soldiers of the Dominican army joined in this movement. After his election the new President issued the following proclamation to the troops and manifesto to the people:

GOD, COUNTRY, AND LIBERTY!

them to stop short all negotiation and return to the Dominican camp, giving the cry of alarm. completely neglected the cantons near Monte Christi; General Salcedo, lulled by the hopes of peace, had and although the attitude of the people and the echo of that alarm induced him to publish a warlike allocution, he conceived, nevertheless, the idea of sending another committee, which, while it showed his weakness toward the enemy, would humiliate the national dignity. In the midst of these delays and

For some time the glorious Restoration initiated on the 16th of August, for the purpose of expelling Spanish despotism from our soil, had lost the vigor of the first days. To the incredible victories, to the portentous deeds of arms, had succeeded discouragement and inaction, while such a state of decay animating the hopes of our enemies, was inducing them to conceive the possibility of conquering us. And it could not be otherwise, for the first magistrate of the nation, always distant from the seat of Government, was unadvisedly destroying its best measures and annulling them without regard.

Such conduct, occasioning embarrassment, difficult to be surmounted, constantly obstructed the march of the revolution, and while there existed an executive in the field and another in the capital, there was in reality no Government at all. General Salcedo thought, also, that he would deserve the title of magnanimous in tolerating the excesses of the Spaniards, whilst this culpable tolerance, when energy was a duty, caused the weakening of public spirit; thus involuntarily constituting himself a candidate of a reaction which, although it could not be successful, might place the country in great danger.

His thirst for popularity frequently moved General Salcedo to make abundant issues of paper money, always opposing the will of his colleagues in the Government for the purpose of buying at a high price the good-will of a few, thus increasing the discredit of our currency, and totally destroying the basis of our financial system.

Always persisting in the idea of annulling the acts of his colleagues, he destroyed the Government created on the 14th of September, 1863, by popular elections, because, in the exercise of its faculties, it had confirmed the sentence of death which the courtmartial had pronounced against a convicted and confessed traitor-thus constituting himself as supreme dictator of the nation, without consulting its will.

He arbitrarily created a cabinet, and assuming the rights of a people who fight for their liberty, curtailed this and misled the national opinion; but his dictatorship, careless of the administration of public affairs and totally absorbed in his personality, was leaving to crumble, little by little, the grand work of the 16th of August, while he was indulging in frivolous amusements and pleasures, which stained the dignity of the people whose representatives he had ignored.

The present representatives of the Spanish Government, who, in view of so many blunders, came to conceive the possibility of a diplomatic and military surprise, initiated negotiations of peace, and General Salcedo, anxious for it, sent a commission to Monte Christi composed of Generals A. Deatjean, Julian B. Curiel, Pablo Rujol, Pedro A. Pimentel, and Colonel M. R. Objio. A few conferences were held with Lieutenant-General Don Jose de la Gandara, whose bad faith, detected by the commissioners, caused

ment, which occasioned his downfall, and the patriots, reassured by this act, are again animated by that revolutionary vigor which the circumstances demand. I have cheerfully endeavored to direct them, convinced of the necessity of such a reform; by it the Dominican nationality has been insured; it has given new guarantees of triumph to our cause; it has saved our liberty. Should Spain insist in her purpose of subjugating the people represent, and war becomes inevitable, greater will be our glories. If she desires peace, the road to it is clear.

President Polanco appointed a new cabinet and issued stringent regulations, refusing to receive into his lines deserters. By a decree, dated the 19th of October, all the titles and forms belonging to monarchical Governments were abolished, as inconsistent with the republican system. The formula, "God preserve you many years" (Dios quarde á. V. muchos años), was ordered to be changed to that of "God and Liberty." To raise money for continuing the war against invasion, the Dominican Government issued bonds and paper which were taken by the people.

On Dec. 4 General Cabral obtained a great victory over the Spaniards at La Canela, near Neyba. After a three hours' struggle the left three banners, all their baggage, ninetylatter were completely defeated. The enemy seven carbines, three trumpets, all their munitions, their mules, &c., &c., besides one hundred and seven dead and thirty-five prisoners. Afterwards the towns of Guerra, Los Llanos, and Hato-Mayor, the communes of Macoris and Sabana de la Mar gave their adherence to the national cause in a free and spontaneous pronunciamiento, according to a communication from Gen. Mansueta. The Spaniards abandoned the town of Seybo, which was at once occupied by Gen. Mansueta, and returned to Higüey, where they were besieged by the patriots. President Polanco, who was about to start for the northwest, addressed a proclsmation to the people of Cibao, exhorting them to follow him in this new campaign. General Castillo also published a proclamation enjoining the inhabitants of Bani to rally for the national cause, telling them that it was hard for him to fight against brothers whose place was by his side under the same flag.

Toward the close of the year President Jeffrard, of Hayti, sent two commissioners, Col. E. Romain and Commissary Douret, to San Domingo for the purpose of transmitting to the provisional Government a few friendly counsels, which, if accepted by the Dominicans, would bring peace and independence to the republic. General Geffrard offered himself as