MADISON; ROBERT FULTON; TECUMSEH.

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(1808

182. Madison President; Robert Fulton; Tecumseh. 1811.) The Embargo Act was the one great error of Jefferson's administration; but, in spite of its unpopularity, the Republicans in the Presidential election of 1808 elected their candidates, James Madison of Virginia and George Clinton of New York, by a large majority of electoral votes. Madison, who has been called the "Father of the Constitution," from the large share he took in bringing about the Constitutional Convention, the promi

nent position he held in that body, and his advocacy of the adoption of the document, was a man of wide acquirements, particularly in legal and political sciences, but possessing a theoretical and constructive mind rather than an executive His occupancy of the Presidential chair is the least attractive part of his political career, and his lack of executive ability was very evident during his first term of office.

one.

ROBERT FULTON.

It was during Jefferson's administration that one of the greatest inventions of modern times was brought to public view. Robert Fulton, born in Pennsylvania, of Irish parentage, after being a portrait painter, then a civil engineer and an inventor, had his attention turned towards the steam-engine, and devised a steamboat. With the pecuniary assistance of Robert R. Livingston of New York, he built a steamboat in Paris, which was apparently a failure. Not discouraged, an attempt was made again in 1807, this time in New York. The Clermont, as the vessel was called, started from New

York, amid the jeers of the lookers-on, for Albany. The crowd soon applauded, however, for the experiment was a perfect success, the Clermont keeping on at the rate of five miles an hour. Though others, notably John Fitch in Pennsylvania in 1788, had attempted to propel vessels by steam and had been partially successful, to Fulton belongs the credit of inventing the first really practical steamboat. Had Fitch had the encouragement and the financial backing

which Fulton received, he might have anticipated the later invention.

In 1811 a war broke out between the Indians of Indiana Territory and the United States. British agents were believed to have stirred up the red men and to have helped them. The Indians, in the absence of Tecumseh, their chief, were totally defeated by General William Henry Harrison at Tippecanoe, near the modern city of Lafayette, Indiana.

Louisiana was admitted as a state in 1812. Many opposed this action, partly on the ground that the country was already too extensive for a republican form of government."

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CHAPTER X.

WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN.

REFERENCES.

General. R. Hildreth, History of the United States, vi. Chaps. xxv.XXX.; J. Schouler, History of the United States, ii. Chaps. viii., ix.; H. Adams, History of the United States, vols. vi.-ix.; Bryant and Gay, Popular History of the United States, iv. 185-244; B. J. Lossing, Field-Book of the War of 1812; T. Roosevelt, Naval War of 1812; R. Johnson, History of the War of 1812; T. W. Higginson, Larger History of the United States, pp. 360-380; E. Channing, The United States, pp. 184-197; J. R. Green, Short History of the English People, Chap. x., sect. iv.; J. F. Bright, History of England, iii. 1325; Magazine of American History, xxix. 417,

Biographies. - References as in preceding chapter, also A. McLaughlin. Lewis Cass; J. Parton, Andrew Jackson, Great Commanders Series.

Special. — Presidential Elections: E. Stanwood, History of Presidential Elections, pp. 57-69; The War, and Peace of Ghent, C. Schurz, Henry Clay, i. 67-125; Winsor, Narrative and Critical History, vi. 376-406; 482-488; H. A. Wise, Seven Decades of the Union, pp. 55–64.

183. Declaration of War. (1812.) - The majority of the people, except in New England, clamored for war with England. Madison, in his message to Congress of June 1, 1812, set forth the grievances of the United States against Great Britain. These were: the impressment of American seamen; violation of neutral rights on the American coast by the British cruisers; the British "Orders in Council"; and the inciting the Indians against the United States. On June

JAMES MADISON.

18, 1812, Congress passed an act declaring war against Great Britain. Only five days later England repealed the "Orders in Council," so injurious to American commerce. It is unlikely that even if Congress had known of England's purpose the declaration would have been withheld, for the party in power were eager to fight, and besides, there was no assurance that the impressment of seamen would be given up. How great was this impressment may be seen from the statement that at one time the names of 6000 men who had been thus seized were on file in the Department of State. The extent of the injury done to the commerce is shown by the fact that between 1803 and 1812, on various pretexts, more than 900 vessels had been captured by British cruisers.

184. The United States ill-prepared for War. (1812.) - The country was ill-prepared for war with any nation, least of all with Great Britain, whose navy numbered about 1000 vessels, while that of the United States could only muster twelve moderate sized vessels besides some useless gunboats, relics of Jefferson's administration. The land forces were ridiculously inadequate, undisciplined, miserably equipped, and officered by incompetent men. Though the navy was so small, the vessels were the best of their class afloat, and were well armed. The officers and men were skilful and well trained by experience in the Tripolitan war. These two facts explain the British successes on land and the American victories on the water. The country plunged rashly into a war which, like most wars, resulted in little which could not have been gained by negotiation.

185. American Failures; Perry's Victory. (1812-1813.) Congress quickly authorized military preparations. The plan of operation was to attack Canada and defend the coast. Henry Dearborn, an officer of the Revolution and

AMERICAN NAVAL VICTORIES.

173

Secretary of War under Jefferson, was made senior majorgeneral. To General William Hull, the governor of Michigan Territory, another Revolutionary man, was intrusted the conduct of the invasion of Canada on the west. He soon surrendered Detroit, the key position of the west, without a blow in its defence, and with it the whole of Michigan Territory fell into the hands of the British.1 An attempt to invade Canada by crossing the Niagara River was also a complete failure. Dearborn early in 1813 personally led an expedition against York, now Toronto; but, after destroying some supplies and unwisely burning the government buildings, retreated to New York, and soon after resigned his position. General William Henry Harrison, to whom had been given the command of the army of the west, tried to recover Detroit, but was unsuccessful. In the fall of 1813 Captain Oliver H. Perry, who had built a small navy on Lake Erie, completely defeated the British naval force near Sandusky, thus opening the way for Harrison's army to advance again upon Detroit, capture it, and pass into Canada. Soon after, meeting the combined Indian and British forces near the river Thames, Harrison routed them in battle, and Tecumseh, the Indian chief, was killed. This victory restored Michigan and the Northwest to the United States, and put an end to the war in that part of the country.

The skill of the American naval officers and the excellence of the American seamen and vessels were equally manifest on the ocean. During 1812 and 1813 the British were greatly surprised at a number of naval victories by the American

1 Hull was tried by court-martial for this act, found guilty of cowardice, and was condemned to be shot. He was, however, pardoned by President Madison in consideration of his services during the Revolutionary War. Hull published a defence in 1824. Many believe that his sentence was too severe, while some think it was altogether unjust, holding he was made to suffer for the shortcomings of others.