the blind. At Brussels are two schools: one for girls, pursuing the manual method; the other for boys, using the labial method. At Rotterdam is an articulating school, directed by D. Hirsch, the leading living advocate of this system. In Denmark a royal decree declares that "every deaf and dumb child born in this kingdom shall receive the education necessary to render him a useful member of society." There are two schools at Copenhagen, the royal institution and Keller's private articulating school. All pupils are first sent to the royal institution for a month, then examined by the heads of the two schools, and all who seem likely to attain success in articulation are removed to Keller's school, the state paying for them at the same rate as at the other. In Sweden, the Stockholm institution has the second finest edifice in Europe. In Russia, the St. Petersburg institution has two residences, one in the city, the other on an island in the river near by, occupied during the intense heat of summer. The German schools are numerous and well supported, but mostly small, and each teacher follows his own method, so that there is little unanimity. Nearly all admit that there is a large class who cannot profit by articulation, and permit the free use of natural gestures, though they reject both conventional signs and dactylology. Germany has been prolific of writers on the deaf; Reich of Leipsic, Grashoff and Sägert of Berlin, Neumann of Königsberg, Graser of Baireuth, Daniel of Zuffenhausen, and Kruse of Schleswig may be particularly mentioned. The Organ der Taubstummen- und Blindenanstalten is a valuable periodical now published monthly at Friedberg in Hesse. În Austria, the system of De l'Epée was first used, but a combined method is now generally employed. The imperial institution at Vienna, successively under Störk, May, and M. and A. Venus (father and son), and that at Prague in Bohemia, have always stood high. At Vienna are two of the best articulating schools in Europe, one supported by the Jewish community, the other the private establishment of Herr Lehfeld. The Swiss and Italian schools mostly retain the French system. The works of Assarotti of Genoa, Pendola of Siena, and Scagliotti of Turin, are of high repute. At Milan are four schools, two of which, one for boys and the other for girls, are under the direction of Signor Tarra. The third is a small private school for the wealthy. The fourth, the royal institution, was in 1863 converted into a normal school; its beneficial effects are already evident, but much remains to be done before education will be within the reach of all the deaf of Italy. In Spain, its birthplace, the art has languished. De Alea and Ballesteros of Madrid have labored almost alone. Portugal has but one school, at Lisbon. Schools were started at Melbourne and Rio Janeiro about 1865. The want of recent and full statistics from most parts of Europe renders the

These institutions probably have 1,000 teachers and 10,000 pupils, and cost over $3,000,000 per annum.-Psychical Condition and Methods of Education. The psychical condition of the uneducated deaf mute, born deaf or rendered so at an early age, is difficult for others to realize. It has often been compared to that of the blind, but there is no real resemblance. Blindness is almost purely a physical misfortune: it leaves open the most important avenues to the mind. Deafness, less severe as a physical affliction, is far more so in its repressive effects upon the intellectual and moral nature. Verbal language is with us the great means of informing and developing the mind. But "the deaf knows nothing, because he hears nothing." He has no language whereby to receive or convey ideas, except rude gestures. The great objects of education are, first, moral and mental development; and second, the acquisition of a ready and ample means of communication which may in some degree restore the sufferer to society. With regard to the means and manner of attaining these ends, there have been from the first two opposite theories, one maintaining the preeminent value of articulation, the other of signs; while not a few instructors have taken a middle course and combined both methods. In writing the history of the art, the terms German, French, and early English are applied to these systems. But geographical boundaries have long ceased to divide them; all three are now to be found side by side in almost every country. We will therefore use the terms labial, manual, and combined.-The advocates of the labial method maintain that articulation is the only true bond between thought and words. Writing and dactylology are merely representatives of speech; and only on the presupposition of speech can they be proper vehicles of thought. Signs, though useful as a preliminary means of understanding between teacher and pupil, are not necessary links between ideas and words. They should be restricted to perfectly instinctive gestures, and even these can be discarded at a very early stage, and new words explained solely by means of words already familiar. The system of conventional signs first devised by De l'Epée is as arbitrary as any set of spoken or written symbols, and no more natural, no more readily apprehended even by the deaf. Its continued use is highly objectionable, leading the mind away from words, and habituating it to think in a different order.

Granting that the process of intellectual advancement may be slower, speech is so great a boon as amply to compensate for the sacrifice, being the readiest and quickest mode of communication, and the only one that can completely restore a deaf mute to society. For the manual method it is claimed that the absence of hearing not merely prevents any relation between thought and speech, but even renders speech unnatural. Words are not the universal and absolute medium of thought. Nature can use, and in the deaf demands, visible forms for its embodiment. They instinctively express themselves in gestures, and apprehend new signs more readily than new words. Signs are addressed directly to the perceptive powers, and are thus the readiest and best means of promoting intellectual progress, even in the study of verbal language. The language of signs is also capable of conveying the highest and most abstract ideas. All its defieiencies are fully made up by writing and dactyl- | ology, which are superior to lip-reading in precision of conveying words. To articulation there are grave practical objections. It can be acquired so as to be rendered serviceable only by the semi-deaf, the semi-mute, and a very small proportion of deaf mutes. Even these cannot control their voices, which are generally monotonous and often disagreeable, and unintelligible except to persons very familiar with them. To impart it requires much more time and labor, and an increased staff of teachers. Lip-reading is practicable only under very favorable conditions; the speaker must be very near, in a good light, and must enunciate slowly and distinctly; and even then it is little more than guesswork. It is becoming more and more the general opinion that, on the one hand, articulation is not merely practicable but desirable with a certain proportion, and that, on the other hand, with the rest signs may be used to greater advantage. Hence a combined method is now most in favor. But instructors differ greatly in their estimate of this proportion, and hence in the prominence they accord to one or the other method. Hirsch claims that 99 in 100 can acquire articulation to a serviceable extent. Hill estimates that 85 in 100 can converse with persons familiar with them, of whom 62 can do so easily, and 11 can converse readily with strangers on ordinary topics. Tarra considers only 30 per cent. likely to profit by instruction in articulation; and H. P. Peet, only 15 per cent. The English and French languages have been found more difficult than German, Danish, and Swedish, and the Slavic languages. In teaching articulation, it is of prime importance that the pupil perceive the difference between his own silent and vocalized breath; this perception Amman styled "the hearing of the deaf," and to produce it, the first great mystery of his art. The elementary sounds are then taught, six weeks at least being usually devoted to

drill upon them, singly and in simple combinations of two or three, without regard to their meaning or want of it. When a perfect command of the vocal organs has been obtained, longer combinations are taught, and finally sentences gradually increasing in length. The order in which sounds are introduced, and the time when meanings are associated with them, vary according to the peculiarities of the pupil and the theories of the teacher. It is important to have daily exercises, however short, and to keep the pupil fresh and interested. With the semi-deaf and semi-mute, the task is rather to correct the erroneous and indistinct enunciation they are liable to fall into. The pupil has to rely much upon observation of the teacher's vocal movements; a little instrument, somewhat like a paper-folder, has been used by some to assist in bringing the tongue into the proper position; and diagrams and charts of the various positions of the vocal organs have been published by Baker of Doncaster and Vaisse of Paris, among others. A new and valuable auxiliary has been found in the system of "visible speech " or universal alphabetics, invented by A. M. Bell of London, now in Boston. This consists of a series of symbols representing in outline the position of the organs in uttering every possible sound. Any language whatever can thus be phonetically written in characters which indicate both the pronunciation and how to produce it. Though not originally devised for the benefit of the deaf, it was soon introduced into Miss Hull's private school in London, and is now in use in the institutions at Boston, Northampton, Hartford, Washington, and Jacksonville. Mr. Bell has also devised a system of notation to indicate pitch and tone, which, in the few cases where it has yet been tried, has proved capable of guiding to a correct and pleasing modulation.-The language of signs is based upon the gestures devised by uneducated deaf mutes, which have been found strikingly similar to those employed by various savage tribes. They are: pointing to objects, expressions of real or simulated emotions, imitations of actions, and representation with the hands of the shape or use of articles. For convenience, the pantomime required fully to express a conception is often reduced to a single sign, by seizing upon some striking characteristic, such as the horns of a cow, or the feeling of the pulse by a physician. Such abridgments are often contrived by the deaf themselves. Ordinary objects, qualities, actions, and relations are readily represented; abstract ideas offer more difficulty. The simpler class are expressed by reference to some object having the quality intended; thus, touching the lips stands for redness. For a higher class recourse is had to rhetorical figures; thus, justice is represented by imitating with the hands a pair of scales evenly balanced. Many words are indicated by their initial letter in the manual alphabet, combined with some gesture;

synonymes, which would otherwise have the same sign, are thus discriminated. Idiomatic phrases, such as "laughing in the sleeve," are transferred into one or two expressive gestures. The natural gesture language has neither inflections nor distinctions for different parts of speech from the same root; and the pronouns and particles are usually omitted. The order is that which the person employing it judges most effective; the customary colloquial order is thought to resemble that of Latin. To establish a language of signs having an exact correspondence with our verbal languages was the aim of De l'Epée and Sicard. They invented signs for the inflections and particles, and prescribed the use of signs for every word, and in the exact order of the words. This system of methodical signs is of service in

teaching languages, but is too stiff and cumbrous for general use in conversation by those imperfectly acquainted with words; and those who can use words fluently prefer the manual alphabet. A "Dictionary of Signs" has been repeatedly essayed; but the slightest attempt to frame a verbal description of a gesture, from which the gesture can be exactly reproduced by a reader of the description, will show the extreme difficulty of the task. Mimographies, or systems of arbitrary symbols for movements and positions, resembling those of phonography for sounds, have been proposed but not elaborated; the plan of the late G. Hutton of Halifax, N. S., appears most feasible. Signs at present can be accurately learned only from the living teacher and by constant practice. Two manual alphabets are in use. That re

quiring both hands is used only in Great Britain, where it has existed almost unchanged since the time of Dalgarno; it imitates the forms of the Roman capital letters, except the vowels; the distinction of these from the consonants, and the somewhat greater ease of learning the system, are certainly advantages, but not sufficient to counterbalance its inconveniences. The other requires only one hand, and imitates the forms of the small letters; it dates back to Bonet, and is used everywhere except in Great Britain, and even there it is gaining ground. The illustration shows the American usage; the letters and t are slightly different in Europe. The j and z are completed by motions describing the curve of the one and the angles of the other. There are positions of the fingers for the numerals, used only in America.-In the

work of education, there is a wide difference between deaf mutes and semi-mutes. With the latter, it may be carried on like that of hearing children, with only a change from the ear to the eye as the avenue of communication with the mind. With the former, the mind must be awakened to activity, as well as furnished with methods of communication; the unconscious acquisitions of hearing children are almost totally lacking; and the teacher's great difficulty is to realize how very low is the point of departure. Heinicke laid down the maxim, "First ideas, then words," and Jacotot added that difficulties must be graduated and presented singly. Accepting these principles, teachers differ greatly in their application. Some teach the alphabet first, others words as units, others complete sentences as single conceptions. Somo

begin with a copious vocabulary; others frame sentences as soon as a few words have been learned; others begin with sentences and deduce the component words. Names of visible objects, their obvious properties, numerals, personal pronouns, and verbs of action are most readily apprehended. The adjectives first taught are usually those of size and color; the prepositions, those of locality. The simple tenses are exemplified by calling attention to a succession of actions. Much use is made of contrast. A considerable step has been taken when the pupil can unite two sentences or clauses, and another when he comprehends the variation of mood and voice. A child of ordinary intelligence, beginning at the age of 10 or 12, will learn in one year to write simple sentences concerning every-day affairs. During the first two or three years, works prepared expressly for the deaf and dumb are used principally; after that, text books prepared for hearing children are taken. Want of means is the only reason why so few advanced works for the deaf and dumb are published. Elementary manuals have been published in America by II. B. Peet, Jacobs, Keep, and J. S. Hutton, and in England by Baker, Hopper, Scott, Patterson, and others. Peet's and Jacobs's are the most extensive and popular. In most of the United States the legal term of attendance is seven years, but the actual average is five. In this time, however, the pupil usually acquires a command of written language and acquaintance with the common school branches sufficient for the ordinary demands of life. The higher classes pursue the studies usually taught in high schools; Latin, French, geometry, and surveying are taught to those who exhibit special aptitude. The college at Washington is designed to afford a course equivalent to that pursued in other colleges;

and one object of it is to qualify deaf mutes better to be themselves teachers of the deaf and dumb. The chief modification of the course is in giving more time to English and less to classics and mathematics. It has been objected to special institutions for both the deaf and the blind, that their peculiarities are intensified by aggregation. Arrowsmith in England, in 1817, Graser in Germany, about 1830, and more recently Blanchet of Paris, proposed to educate the deaf and dumb in common schools, along with their hearing brothers and sisters. The experiment has been tried in Ireland, Prussia, France, and Belgium; everywhere it has been found that its inconveniences and disadvantages far counterbalance any attending the other system. This, however, was in the elementary instruction. In a few recent cases deaf persons have with benefit and credit attended the higher schools for the hearing.-The legal status of the deaf and dumb who were unable to read and write was, under the Roman law and the codes founded upon it, practically that of the insane and the idiotic. The English common law early recog nized that intelligence sufficient for the enjoy ment of all civil rights, and for credibility and accountability in courts of law, might be manifested otherwise than by the use of verbal language. The principle is now settled by numerous precedents, both in England and in the United States, that the degree of intelligence in a deaf mute is to be decided as a matter of fact, and any means whereby he can express himself intelligibly, directly or through an interpreter, is admissible. A will made by a deaf and dumb lady, at an advanced age, and after she had become blind, was lately declared valid in England. It is only in the case of the totally uneducated that there is any question

of accountability. The most exhaustive essays on this subject are by C. Guyot of Groningen, and H. P. Peet and his son I. L. Peet of New York. Berthier of Paris is editing the Code Napoléon with reference to the wants of the deaf and dumb.-The number of the deaf and dumb who have attained eminence is very small, and all or nearly all have been semi-mutes. Q. Pedius and Navarrete, Massieu and Clerc, Pélissier, Berthier, and Kruse have already been mentioned. In Great Britain we note Walter Geikie, S. R. A. (1795-1837), called "the Teniers of Scotland;" John Kitto, D. D. (1804–254), editor of the "Biblical Cyclopædia" and author of "Daily Bible Illustrations;" and Mr. Lowe, a conveyancer and chamber counsel in London. In France, Baron Eugène de Montbret (1785-1847) was distinguished as a linguist. In America, James Nack has published several volumes of poems; John R. Burnet has written many contributions to periodicals of a high class; the late Albert Newsam was a leading lithographic artist; John Carlin is known both as a miniature painter and as a writer; and Francis McDonnell has attained some reputation as a sculptor. Mrs. Mary Toles Peet has written numerous fugitive poems, and Miss Laura C. Redden has made her nom de plume of "Howard Glyndon' familiar to magazine readers.

DEÁK, Ferencz, a Hungarian statesman, born at Söjtör, in the county of Zala, Oct. 17, 1803. He was educated at Comorn and Raab, studied law, was elected to the diet of 1832-'6, and became the leader of the opposition. He was reelected to the diet of 1839-'40, and to that of 1843-24, but refused to serve in the latter on account of the instruction given to the representatives to vote against the proposed equality of taxation, to which Deák with some 200 other nobles now voluntarily subjected himself. Failing health compelled him to decline the offered election to the diet of 1847-'8; but in the spring of 1848, after the decisive victory gained by the opposition, under the lead of Kossuth, over the Austrian government, he accepted the portfolio of justice in the Batthyányi ministry. While holding this office he attempted a complete judicial reform, but the scheme was interrupted by the war. The ministry resigning on the outbreak of open hostilities against Austria, he retired to private life. In December he was a member of the unsuccessful deputation sent to the camp of Windischgrätz for the negotiation of peace, was arrested by that commander, but soon released, and took up his abode at Pesth. After rejecting various overtures made him by the Vienna cabinet with the object of gaining him over as a mediator between the dynasty and the Hungarian people, he reappeared in the public arena toward the close of 1860, after the reverses in Italy and financial embarrassments had compelled Francis Joseph to promise the restoration of the national liberties. Elected by the city of Pesth to the diet of 1861, he was

acknowledged as the leader in that assembly. But his efforts to bring about a satisfactory solution of the national difficulties on the basis of the laws of 1848 failed, and in August, 1861, the diet was dissolved. A new diet was convoked late in 1865, but was prorogued shortly before the outbreak of the Austrian war with Prussia in 1866. After its disastrous termination the national demands of Hungary, as formulated by Deák, then again representative from Pesth, were readily assented to by Beust, the new chief minister of Francis Joseph, and thus the dualistic basis was created on which the Austro-Hungarian empire now rests. (See AUSTRIA, and HUNGARY.) Deák, who had throughout evinced equal firmness and moderation, now became the leader of the majority in the diet, which was favorable to the Hungarian cabinet formed by Andrássy, though occasionally opposing it upon minor points. He has since continued nearly in the same attitude toward the cabinets of Lónyay (formed in 1871) and Szlávy (in 1872), having been successively reëlected by the city of Pesth.

DEAL, a parliamentary and municipal borough and market town of Kent, England, on the North sea, between the N. and S. Forelands, 8 m. N. E. of Dover, and 66 m. E. S. E. of London; pop. in 1871, 8,004. It is divided into Upper and Lower Deal; the former, which comprises the residences of the wealthy classes, was a small fishing village in the time of Henry VIII.; the latter, built on three streets, close to the beach and parallel with the coast, is entirely of modern date, and has most of the business and the bulk of the population. The town contains a spacious esplanade, a public library and reading room, a custom house, a naval yard and storehouse, barracks, a town hall, a jail, baths, gas works, and a nautical school. At its S. end is a fortress built by Henry VIII. in 1539, and on the north is Sandown castle, now used as a coast guard station. There is no harbor, but vessels of all dimensions ride safely in a spacious roadstead called the Downs, between the shore and the Goodwin sands. The latter lie directly opposite the town, and are the scene of frequent shipwrecks. There is little or no foreign commerce, but a brisk trade in naval supplies is carried on with vessels which, at times to the number of 400 or 500, anchor in the Downs while, waiting for favorable winds. The principal industries are boat building and sail making; but many of the inhabitants are fishermen, and the skill and daring of the Deal boatmen are almost proverbial. Deal was annexed to the cinque ports in the 13th century, as a member of Sandwich. Adjoining Deal on the south is the suburban village of Walmer, a resort for sea bathing, where is situated Walmer castle, the official residence of the warden of the cinque ports.

DEAN (Lat. decanus, chief of ten; old Fr. deien; mod. Fr. doyen), a title given to certain persons who, in ecclesiastical or lay bodies, are first either in dignity or in seniority. The