he formed a plot against his life, which was in the sense of the German Kaiser, but the discovered by Tissaphernes, and pardoned on ancient Slavic translation of the Bible has kethe intercession of Parysatis, widow of Da-sar for κaicap, and tzar for king. Karamzin rius. Reinstated in his satrapy, Cyrus col- and others, therefore, compare the term with lected a powerful army, including 13,000 the syllable sar found in the names of the Greek mercenaries (one of whom was Xeno- Assyrian and Babylonian monarchs Phalassar phon, their leader in the subsequent retreat), (Pileser), Nabonassar, and Nabopolassar, and and marched from Sardis in the spring of 401 with the Hebrew sar (commander, chief). The toward Babylonia, with the secret purpose of Mongols used the same appellation, and probdethroning his brother. Having crossed the ably the Russians adopted it from them. It Euphrates at Thapsacus, he met the king at is used by Russian annalists as early as the the head of an immense army, near Cunaxa. 12th century; but as the official title of the The battle was nearly won, especially by the monarch it dates from the 16th. Before this valor of the Greeks on the right wing, when, period they styled themselves grand princes perceiving Artaxerxes in the centre, the am- (velikoi kniazh) of Kiev, Novgorod, Vladimir, bitious prince furiously rushed to assail him, Moscow, &c. Basil Ivanovitch assumed in and fell pierced by a javelin, after having 1505 the title of samoderzhetz, or autocrat; his wounded his brother. The character and ac- son Ivan the Terrible was crowned in 1547 as complishments of this prince are described by czar. After the annexation of Smolensk and Xenophon, in the first book of the Anabasis. the Ukraine, the title of czar of Moscow was CYTHERA. See CERIGO. changed into that of czar of Great, White, and Little Russia (of all the Russias). Though the word czar was used by the Russians also to designate the emperors of the West, as well as of the East (hence the name Tzargorod, city of the emperor, for Constantinople), Peter the Great, to be without contradiction ranked among the monarchs of the highest category, in 1721 assumed in addition the title of imperator, or emperor. In the long negotiations for the acknowledgment of this dignity, which was contested by many states of Europe, it was proved that Maximilian I., who in 1514 concluded a treaty of alliance with Russia against Poland, had used the term emperor (Kaiser) for czar, and that the same was done by other powers in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was not, however, till the reign of Catharine II. that Poland, Spain, and Turkey acknowledged the imperial dignity of Russia. The wife of the czar was anciently called tzaritza; his sons had the title of tzarevitch, his daughters that of tzarevna. Since the death of Alexei, the latter appellations have been replaced by those of grand prince and grand princess (generally rendered grand duke and grand duchess). Constantine, the second son of Paul I., received in 1799 the title of tzesarewitch, which was bestowed after his death in 1831, by the emperor Nicholas, upon his own son Alexander (now the reigning emperor). The wife of the latter received the title of tzesarevna. The crown prince Alexander Alexandrovitch, born in 1845, now bears the former title. The empress is styled in Russian imperatritza. The popular Russian appellation of the sovereign is still czar, or hosudar (hospodar, lord). Czar was also the ancient title of the princes of Grusia, or Georgia, and Imerethia, now Russian provinces. CYZICUS, one of the oldest and most powerful of the Greek cities of Asia, situated on a small island in the Propontis, near the Mysian shore, said to have been founded by a Pelasgic tribe, expelled from their homes by the Eolians. It was afterward subject alternately to Athens, Sparta, and Persia, and obtained its independence after the time of Alexander. In the wars which determined the fate of the kingdom of Syria it took part with Pergamus and the Romans against Antiochus. The heroism with which the Cyzicenes defended their city when it was besieged by Mithridates obtained for it the rank of a libera civitas. When Constantine created the new province of Hellespontus, he made Cyzicus the capital. It was partially destroyed by an earthquake in A. D. 443, and was captured and completely ruined by the Arabians in 675. The place is now overgrown with neglected orchards and vineyards, and a low sandy isthmus has been formed converting the island into a peninsula. CZAJKOWSKI, Michal, a Polish novelist, born in the Ukraine in 1808. After the Polish revolution of 1830 he betook himself to Paris, and in 1840 was sent by a portion of the Polish emigration on a mission to Turkey, where he became a Mohammedan under the name of Mohammed Sadik Effendi. On the outbreak of the Crimean war, he organized and with the title of pasha commanded a body of troops called the Cossacks of the sultan, and after the retreat of the Russians from the Danubian principalities was made military governor of Bucharest. He remained in Turkish service after the war, until, his son having in 1872 obtained permission to settle in Russia, he was soon after allowed by Alexander II. to return to his native country. His novels, which treat chiefly of Cossack and Ukrainian life, and of which Wernyhora is the most esteemed, have been translated into several languages. CZAR, or Tzar, a title of the sovereigns of Russia, meaning king or lord. It has been supposed to be a corruption of the Latin Cæsar, CZARNIECKI, or Czarnecki, Stefan, a Polish general, born at Czaruca, in the palatinate of Sandomierz, in 1599, died at Sokolówka, Volhynia, in 1665. Of a noble but poor family, he studied at the university of Cracow, entered the army, and met with little advance ment before the Cossack rebellion in 1648. He was made captive in the battle at the Yellow Waters (May 25, 1648), but was set free after the pacification of Zborów, in the following year. He fought in the long and bloody battle at Beresteczko, June, 1651, in which the Cossacks and Tartars were defeated. In 1655 he defended the castle of Cracow with the utmost bravery against the king of Sweden, but was compelled by want of food to surrender. After the repulse of the Swedes from Czenstochowa he collected the scattered remains of the Polish troops, formed the confederation of Tyszowce with John Sobieski and others, and commenced a brilliant and successful course of partisan warfare against the Swedes, who had conquered the greatest part of the country, and before whom the patriotic but feeble king, John Casimir, had fled to Silesia. In the early part of 1656, with the assistance of 5,000 Tartars, he defeated them in four battles, brought back the king in triumph, and turned his arms with similar success against Rákóczy, prince of Transylvania, who had invaded Poland shortly after the Swedes, and whom he drove back into his country and compelled to sign the treaty of peace he had himself prescribed (July, 1657). The dignity of palatine of Red Russia, and the title of "Liberator of Poland," were his reward. In 1658 he marched to the assistance of Frederick III. of Denmark, who had invaded the German possessions of Sweden; he conquered the island of Alsen, took the command against the Russians, hastened to Lithuania, and won two great victories at Polonka, near Slonim, and on the banks of the Dnieper. Being sent against the Cossacks, he rapidly crossed the Dnieper, and took several places on that river. On June 7, 1661, he made a triumphal entry into Warsaw, where the king had convened a diet, and presented to him 150 flags taken from the enemy. The diet by a unanimous vote gave him in perpetuity the County of Tykocin. He then undertook to chastise the Cossacks, who, incited and supported by the Russians, had again commenced their devastations (1663); and in order to procure the assistance of the Tartar khan he set out with only 13 horsemen, following the course of the Dniester, hastened through Bessarabia and the Ukraine to the Crimea, and defeated the Cossacks at Czehryn (1664) and Stawiszcze (1665). But these exertions exhausted him; returning, he could not be carried beyond the village of Sokolówka, where he died in a peasant's hut, having received a few days before the staff of hetman of the crown. CZARTORYSKI, the name of a Polish princely family, whose origin is traced to Korygiello or Constantine of Tchernigov, son of Olgierd, duke of Lithuania, and half brother of Jagiello, the founder of the dynasty of that name in Poland (1386). The name is derived from the dominion of Czartorya, and the place Czartorysk near Luck in Volhynia. Of the two branches of the family, which belongs to the VOL. V.-40 highest rank of nobility in their country, and boasts of a number of statesmen equally remarkable for wealth, talents, and patriotism, the male line of the younger branch, that of Korzek, became extinct in 1810, while the elder, that of Zuków, is still flourishing. To this elder branch belong the following. I. Michal Fryderyk, born about 1695, died at Warsaw, Aug. 13, 1775. He was made castellan of Wilna in 1720, vice chancellor of Lithuania in 1724, and great chancellor of that principality in 1752. Together with his brother and other nobles, he formed an influential party, which strove to bring about a reform of the constitution of Poland designed to strengthen the influence of the king and the judiciary, and to restrain the anarchical independence of the high dignitaries of the crown. Their chief object was to change Poland into a hereditary kingdom, if possible under a Czartoryski. To counterbalance the influence of the reigning house of Saxony, as well as that of Austria, they courted the assistance of Russia, which by money and arms, however, finally decided the matter in its own favor. II. August Alexander, brother of the preceding, born in 1697, died in Warsaw in 1782. He was palatine of Red Russia, and lieutenant general of the army of the crown. He was a zealous coöperator with his brother, but was deceived in the expectation of seating his son upon the throne. By activity and lucky speculations he added greatly to the wealth of the family. III. Adam Kazimierz, son of the preceding, born at Dantzic, Dec. 1, 1731, died at Sieniawa in Galicia, March 19, 1823. After the death of Augustus III. (1763), the party headed by his father and uncle chose him as candidate for the royal dignity. To gain the assistance of Russia, his cousin Stanislas Poniatowski was sent to the court of St. Petersburg. But Catharine II. determined to put the crown of Poland upon the head of her favorite Poniatowski himself. This being known, Czartoryski yielded to his rival, to whom he had been attached from early youth. At the assembly of the nation preceding the election, the Czartoryskis and their adherents appeared in great numbers at Warsaw, and with them an army of Russians, sent to support the claims of Poniatowski. Adam Kazimierz was chosen marshal or president of the diet in spite of patriotic opposition roused by the presence of the Russians, and Poniatowski was elected king. After the first partition of Poland in 1772, Czartoryski, who possessed large estates in Galicia, accepted the commission of a general of artillery in the Austrian army, but still adhered to the party which worked for the restoration of the power of Poland through a constitutional reform, and distinguished himself at the long diet, which proclaimed the liberal constitution of May 3, 1791. He was also active in persuading the elector of Saxony to accept the hereditary succession to the crown of Poland, and Austria to engage in an alliance against Russia. But the Poles, offered her a pension, which she re- all these attempts failed; the confederation of Targovitza against the new constitution was assisted by the arms of Russia, Poniatowski deserted the cause of the reform, and in 1793 a new partition of Poland ensued. Czartoryski now retired and lived at Vienna during the great rising under Kosciuszko (1794), whom he persuaded not to extend the insurrection over the frontiers of Austria; which, however, did not prevent that power from taking its share at the final dismemberment of Poland in 1795. He took no part in the events which followed the treaty of Tilsit, and the creation of the duchy of Warsaw by Napoleon (1807); but in 1812 he accepted the marshalship of the confederation, preceding the invasion of Russia, which promised the restoration of ancient Poland. The fatal issue of the great campaign foiled his hope, and Czartoryski retired to Pulawy, but in 1815 headed a deputation to the congress of Vienna, and presented to the emperor Alexander the outlines of a new constitution for the kingdom of Poland, now reorganized under his sceptre. Alexander made him senator palatine. IV. Elzbieta, wife of the preceding, born countess of Flemming in 1746, died in Galicia, June 17, 1835. She was distinguished by beauty, spirit, and patriotism, but also inclined to romantic extravagance. Having spent several years at court, and in travels in western Europe, she retired to Pulawy, where she constructed the admirable gardens of which Delille sings in the didactic poem Les jardins, and the "temple of the sibyl," containing a collection of relics of Polish history. She was also active in promoting industry and education. She published "Ideas on the Construction of Gardens" (Breslau, 1807), and "The Pilgrim in Dobromil" (War-cused of conspiracy, had been subjected. After saw, 1818), a popular book on national history, the outbreak of the revolution of Nov. 29, 1830, for the instruction of the agricultural class. he was called to preside over the provisional Having survived the three partitions and two government. He convoked for Dec. 18 the restorations of Poland, she proved her patriot- diet which proclaimed the independence of ism in the revolution of 1830-31, but had the Poland, Jan. 25, 1831, when he became presimortification to see her seat at Pulawy bom- dent of the national government. This dignity, barded by her own grandson, the prince of in which he sacrificed immense riches, he laid Würtemberg, who served in the Russian army. down to serve as a private soldier under RaShe passed her last years with her daughter in morino. After the surrender of that general Galicia. The collections of Pulawy were in in Galicia, and the fall of Warsaw (September, part dispersed, and in part transported to St. 1831), he shared the fate of the Polish emiPetersburg. V. Marya Anna, daughter of the gration in France. He was excluded from the preceding, born March 15, 1768, died in Paris amnesty of 1831; his estates in the Russian in October, 1854. In 1784 she was married to Polish provinces were confiscated; those in Louis Frederick Alexander, prince of Würtem- Austria were sequestered in 1846 in consequence berg; but as he betrayed the cause of Poland of a declaration in favor of the revolutionary in 1792, she left him and was divorced. Her movement which drove the Austrians from mother says in one of her letters: "A heavenly Cracow, but were restored in 1848. In March, soul, an angelic character, a charming figure, 1848, he issued a proclamation calling upon the talents, virtues, and many misfortunes-this is representatives of Germany and France to her history." In 1818 she published a ro- unite for the restoration of Poland. In April mance, Malwina, which was translated into of the same year he abolished serfdom on his several languages. After the revolution of estates of Sieniawa. Being the choice of the 1830-31 she retired to Galicia. The estates monarchical party in the Polish emigration, of the Czartoryskis in the kingdom of Poland Czartoryski was often violently attacked by having been confiscated, her only son Adam, the democrats; but together with his wife, prince of Würtemberg, who had served against Anna (born Princess Sapieha in 1796), he sustained his dignified position by a nearly regal munificence, which made his hotel in Paris a place of refuge for his suffering compatriots. His eldest son, WITOLD, born June 6, 1824, died in Algiers, Nov. 14, 1865; and his second son, WLADYSLAW, born July 3, 1828, became head of the family. His first wife, a daughter of the ex-queen Christina of Spain, having died in 1864, he married in 1872 the princess Marguerite of Orleans, daughter of the duke de Nemours, second son of Louis Philippe. CZASLAU, a town of Bohemia, 45 m. S. E. of Prague; pop. about 6,000. It has a church noted for its lofty spire, and containing the tomb of Ziska, the Hussite leader. The town also contains a high school and manufactories of copper and brass ware, beet sugar, and alcohol. It is memorable for a victory of Frederick the Great over the Austrians, May 17, 1742. CZEGLÉD, a market town of Hungary, in the county and 42 m. S. E. of the city of Pesth, on the Pesth and Szolnok railway; pop. in 1870, 22.216. It is situated in a fertile district, which produces much grain and some red wine. It has a Roman Catholic and a Calvinist church. The inhabitants are mostly Magyars and agriculturists. The proximity of Kecskemét, Szolnok, and the Theiss made Czegléd conspicuous during the Hungarian war of 1848-'9. CZELAKOWSKY. See CELAKOVSKY. CZENSTOCHOWA, or Czenstochau, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Piotrków, near the Prussian frontier, on the Warta, and on the Cracow and Warsaw railway; pop. in 1867, 14,167. It consists of an old and a new town, and the suburb St. Barbara. Its chief manufacture is chaplets and images for the pilgrims from Poland and other Slavic countries, who annually visit the shrine of the monastery of St. Paul, on the Klareberg (Pol. Jasna Góra), between the old and new towns, which contains a dark brown image of the Virgin, the miraculous power of which is a matter of general belief among the Slavic people. The monastery, having been pillaged by the Hussites in the 15th century, was fortified, and in 1655 withstood a siege of the Swedes of Charles Gustavus, who had occupied the whole country, and were here repulsed by a few friars. It was bravely defended by the confederates of Bar under Pulaski in 1771, when the old town was reduced to ashes. It was taken by the French in 1806, newly fortified by them in 1812, and finally given up to the Russians, who destroyed the fortifications. CZERMAK. I. Johann Nepomuk, a Bohemian physiologist, born in Prague, June 17, 1828. He was professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at Gratz 1855-'6, of physiology at Cracow 1856-'8, at Pesth 1858-'60, and at Jena 1865-'70, and in 1870 was appointed professor at Leipsic. He was the first to introduce laryngoscopy and rhinoscopy into medical practice by means of a speculum, and has written many works, including Zur Orientirung im Gesammtgebiet der Zoologie (Leipsic, 1855) and Der Kehlkopfspiegel und seine Verwerthung für Physiologie und Medizin (1860). II. Jarosław, Bohemian painter, brother of the preceding, born in Prague, Aug. 1, 1831. His earliest pictures exhibited at the academy of Prague were "Marius on the Ruins of Carthage" and "The Assassination of Wallenstein's Companions in Eger." Subsequently he became a member of the academy of Antwerp, and produced several historical pictures, including "Sloven Emigrants," which was purchased by King Leopold I., and "The Hussites entering with Procopius the Council of Basel." Since 1850 he has produced many genre pictures, chiefly illustrating Slavic subjects. CZERNOWITZ, Tehernovitz, or Czernowice, the capital of the Austrian crownland of Bukowina, on the Pruth, 450 m. E. of Vienna; pop. in 1870, 33,884. It stands on a hill overhanging the river, and has broad clean streets, with gardens and vineyards. It has a theological institution belonging to the Greek church, and the new cathedral is the finest building in the town. The former bishopric of Czernowitz was in 1873 made an archbishopric, with jurisdiction over the Greek church in Cisleithan Austria. There are also several Roman Catholic churches. The manufactures are inconsiderable, the most important being silver ware and hardware. The principal trade, which consists in the raw products of the country, is almost exclusively in the hands of Armenians and Jews. Czernowitz is connected by railways with Lemberg, Jassy, and Galatz. CZERNY, Karl, a German composer, born in Vienna, Feb. 21, 1791, died there, July 15, 1857. He received his musical instruction from his father, a teacher of the piano, appeared at the age of 9 in a concert, and became acquainted with Beethoven and afterward with Clementi. He pursued the profession of his father from 1805 to 1835, and visited London in 1836. Among his pupils are Liszt, Döhler, and other distinguished artists. He wrote an immense number of compositions, and several theoretical works, of which the Practical School of Composition" (English and German, 3 parts, London and Bonn, 1849), and the Umriss der ganzen Musikgeschichte (Mentz, 1851), are the most remarkable. CZERNY GEORGE, or Kara George (Black George), the leader of the Servians in their insurrection against the Turks, and their chief during the first period of their national restoration, born about 1770, strangled and beheaded in July, 1817. He was a peasant, and served in the Austrian army in the war against Turkey, but soon left the service and fled to his native mountains, where he became the chieftain of a band of outlaws. When the insurrection of 1805 broke out, he became its leader. In 1807 the Servians had become masters of the whole country, and George was acknowledged by the sultan as their chief. During the following years he was engaged in hostilities with the Turks, supported indirectly by Russia and France. After the treaty of Bucharest, in 1812, the Servians were abandoned by Napoleon and Alexander; and the Turks again made themselves masters of Servia, which however soon recovered a partial independence under Milosh Obrenovitch, George going into exile. In 1817, when the Greek Hetairia was secretly preparing a general insurrection in the northern provinces of the Ottoman empire, George returned to Servia and besought Milosh to raise the banner of insurrection. But the new ruler, afraid of a rival, informed the pasha of Belgrade of his presence, and that official demanded his head, which was sent to Constantinople, where it was publicly exposed. (See ALEXANDER KarageorgEVITCH.) office and his public literary pursuits, and reenter the monastery. In 1844 he became the editor of the academical dictionary, in which he had advanced to the letter I when the work was interrupted by the revolution of 1848. Czuczor embraced the popular movement, and was sentenced in 1849 to six years' imprisonment for his Riadó, a Hungarian Marseillaise. At the intercession of the president of the academy, Count Joseph Teleky, he was enabled to resume in prison his labors on the dictionary. After the capture of Buda he was released by the Hungarian army; but on the defeat of the revolution he preferred prison to exile, and gave himself up to the victors. He was transferred to the state prison of Kufstein, where CZUCZOR, Gergely, a Hungarian author, born he remained until 1850, when he was pardoned. at Andód, county of Neutra, Dec. 17, 1800, While at Kufstein he devoted himself to his died in Pesth, Sept. 9, 1866. He was a Bene- dictionary (of which five volumes prepared dictine monk, and from 1825 to 1835 was pro- under his direction were published before his fessor at the colleges of Raab and Comorn; death), and to a Hungarian translation of but after he had removed to Pesth, where in Tacitus. His epic poems, "The Battle of 1835 he was elected assistant librarian and Augsburg," "The Assembly of Arad," and keeper of the archives of the Hungarian acad-"Hunyady," are among his most renowned emy, the monks found fault with some of his productions. He also published a translation poems, and he was compelled to relinquish his of Sparks's "Life of Washington." D D, THE fourth letter in the Phoenician | figure is more or less triangular, and more or system of writing, and in most of those less rounded, while in many so-called alphabets derived from it. It is the representative of it is a mere angle or crook. In old Slavic it octhe last four classes into which the sounds of cupies (erroneously) the 5th place, in Ethiopic human speech may be divided; A represent- the 19th, or, counting the Amharic additions, ing the first or fancal (vocal) class, B the the 24th. Its hieroglyphs are the segment of a second or labial, and C the third or gut- circle, an open hand, a beetle, which designate tural. The letters of this fourth, denti-lingual both T and D. Moreau de Dammartin derives or lingui-dental class, viz., d, t, 8, 2, l, r, the figure from the northern triangle, and from are visible signs of the articulated sounds pro- the little triangle in the head of the ram in the duced by various movements of the tongue zodiac. In Arabic there are four modifications touching the teeth and gums, and are there- of it, to wit: dal (4, as a numeral sign), the fore convertible into each other; and from 8th letter; dzal (700), the 9th; dhad (800), the a misunderstanding of the real character of 15th; and dha (900), the 17th; but in Cufic human phonetism, and of its graphic repre- writing only the first is used. The Devanagari sentation, the combination th, and even g, j, has two series of letters, each consisting of five and ch, have been and are used instead of the (t, th, d, dh, n), one of which is named cerebral letters of the fourth class. D is the sonorous or lingual, and the other dental; most of the counterpart of T, and is produced by applying modes of writing employed in the middle and the tip of the tongue to the superior incisive south of Asia follow this arrangement. In teeth and to their gum, while the tongue, Mongolic and Mantchooric D is distinguished obliquely rising, obstructs the passage of the from T by a dot, as it is also in the runes. breath; then by suddenly withdrawing this ob- The Finns, Lapps, and other northern people, struction, while the larynx resounds (oscillates) scarcely distinguish it from T. It is the only during the passage of the air through the glot- sonorous consonant with the Hurons, and was tis, the sound in question is exploded. When very prevalent among the natives of the Mexithe larynx does not thus resound, we utter the can plateau and in the Quichua of South Amerharder T. The 7, r, are strictly lingui-dental, ica. It does not occur on Etruscan monuments, and d, t, 8, z, denti-lingual. The Semitic name T being used in its place. Grimm exhibits the daleth (whence the Greek delta), signifying convertibility of the lingui-dentals as follows: door, gate, has nothing to do either with the nature of the sound or with the figure of the letter, and was probably chosen merely on account of its beginning with this sound. Greek. Gothic. Ꮎ D Its T Th Old High German. Ꮓ T D NHA |