Second and Connecticut lakes, and receives several small tributaries, one of which separates New Hampshire from Canada on the west.. From Connecticut lake it flows W. and S. W. to a point near the N. E. angle of Vermont, whence it forms the boundary line between that state and New Hampshire, flowing generally S. S. W. It afterward flows S. across the W. part of Massachusetts and through the centre of Connecticut to Middletown, where it turns S. E. and flows to the sound. The length | of the river is more than 400 m. Its width at the N. boundary of Vermont is about 150 ft., which increases to about 390 ft. within 60 m., and varies from 450 to 1,050 ft. in Massachusetts and Connecticut. The Connecticut is navigable to Middletown, 30 m., for vessels of 10 ft. draught, and to Hartford, 50 m., for those drawing 8 ft. There are numerous falls in the river, the chief of which are the Fifteen-mile falls in New Hampshire and Vermont, the White river falls below Hanover, Bellows Falls, those at Montague and South Hadley in Massachusetts, and at Enfield in Connecticut. These falls afford abundant water power. By means of canals around them, the river has been made navigable for boats of 8 or 10 tons burden as far as Newbury, near the mouth of Wells river in Vermont, 270 m. from the sound. The principal tributaries of the Connecticut are: from the west, the Passumpsic, Wells, White, and • Williams in Vermont, the Deerfield and Westfield in Massachusetts, and the Farmington in Connecticut; from the east, the Ammonoosuck in New Hampshire, and Miller's and Chicopee in Massachusetts. Above Hartford the Connecticut is spanned by numerous bridges. Great efforts have been made recently for the artificial propagation of shad and salmon in the Connecticut river, where they formerly abounded. As a result, numerous shad have been caught, but the experiment has proved less successful in regard to salmon. The Connecticut valley is about 300 m. long, with an average width of 40 m.; it contains valuable agricultural lands and much highly attractive

CONNER, David, an American naval officer, born in Harrisburg, Pa., about 1792, died in Philadelphia, March 20, 1856. He entered the navy as midshipman in January, 1809, and as acting lieutenant took part in the action between the Hornet and Peacock, Feb. 24, 1813. The Peacock surrendered in a sinking condition in 15 minutes after the engagement commenced, and Lieut. Conner was charged with the duty of removing the prisoners, most of whom he succeeded in saving, though not without losing three of his own men. In 1813 he became a lieutenant, and remained in the Hornet, under the command of Capt. James Biddle. In the

action with the Penguin in 1815 he was dangerously wounded. For his gallant conduct in that action he was presented with a medal by congress, and the legislature of his native state voted him a sword. On March 3, 1825, he was promoted to the rank of commander, and on March 3, 1835, to that of captain. At the opening of the war with Mexico he was in command of the squadron on the West India station. In May, 1846, having received intelligence that Arista had determined to attack Gen. Taylor, he sailed from Vera Cruz for Brazos Santiago, where he arrived on the 8th, too late for the fighting. He now established an efficient blockade of the Mexican ports on the gulf. In August and October two fruitless attempts were made to enter the port of Alvarado. On Nov. 14 the port of Tampico was captured. On March 9, 1847, he directed the landing of the army under Gen. Scott at Vers Cruz, but was soon after compelled by ill health to return home. His last service was the command of the Philadelphia navy yard.

CONOLLY, John, an English physician and author, born at Market Rasen, Lincolnshire, in 1795, died at Hanwell, March 5, 1866. He graduated at the university of Edinburgh in 1821; was professor of medicine in the university of London from 1828 to 1831, and consulting physician to the lunatic asylum at Hanwell from 1839 to 1843, and to that for idiots at Earlswood. He acquired distinction by his adoption of the system of non-restraint in the treatment of the insane. He invited Dr. Guggenbühl to England, and after examining the institution for cretins near Interlaken and the schools of Seguin and Voisin in Paris, be procured the establishment of the temporary school for idiots at Colchester and of the royal asylum at Surrey, of both of which he became an active manager. Besides contributions to current medical literature, he published "Inquiry concerning the Indications of Insanity" (1830), "Construction and Government of Lunatic Asylums" (1847), "Treatment of the Insane" (1856), and "Study of Hamlet " (1863).

CONON, an Athenian general and admiral, living about 400 B. C. In 413 he commanded a fleet of 18 ships off Naupactus, to prevent the Corinthians from sending aid to the Syracusans; in 409 he was elected general in connection with Alcibiades and Thrasybulus; and in 407 he was made the chief of the ten generals appointed to supersede Alcibiades, whose dissolute conduct and mismanagement had disgusted the Athenian people. Soon after, in an engagement with the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, off Mitylene, he was defeated with the loss of 30 vessels, and was compelled to take refuge with the remnant of his fleet in the harbor of that city, where he was closely blockaded by his opponent till the Athenian victory at Arginusæ effected his deliverance. Having been soon after appointed, with five colleagues, to the command of a large fleet, he proceeded at once to the Hellespont to engage the Lace

dæmonian squadron, under the command of Lysander, but was surprised at Ægospotami (405), and sustained that memorable defeat which placed Athens at the mercy of her great rival. How far he was responsible for this disaster it is not easy to determine, but that his colleagues were shamefully remiss in duty there is no doubt. He was the only Athenian general on his guard, and, with the division under his command, escaped to his friend Evagoras, king of Cyprus, where he remained eight years. In 395, having repaired in person to the Persian court to offer his services to Artaxerxes II. against the Spartans, he was appointed with Pharnabazus to the joint command of a powerful fleet, with which, in August, 394, he gained a splendid victory over Pisander at Cnidus. The next year Conon and Pharnabazus sailed for the Peloponnesus. After they had laid waste the coast of Laconia, Conon repaired to Athens, and rebuilt the walls and fortifications both of the city and of the Piræus. Thus he had the satisfaction at last of being hailed by his countrymen as at once the deliverer and the restorer of the city. Having been subsequently sent by the Athenians on an embassy to Tiribazus, satrap of Ionia, to oppose the intrigues of Antalcidas, who was endeavoring to negotiate a general peace under the mediation of Persia, he was seized in violation of public faith, and thrown into prison. According to some accounts he was put to death, but it is more probable that he escaped to Cyprus and there spent the rest of his days. The public life of Conon was one of the purest and most useful, as well as one of the most eventful, that adorn Athenian annals.

CONRAD. I. Duke of Franconia, elected king of Germany in 911, when the male line of descendants of Charlemagne had become extinct, died Dec. 23, 918. The royal authority had been so much shattered under the feeble rule of his predecessors that his brief reign was only a series of campaigns against his disobedient vassals. He was unsuccessful in his efforts to reconquer Lorraine from France, and to subdue Duke Henry of Saxony; but in Swabia he overcame two lords who had broken the public peace and had them tried and executed. He also expelled Arnulf, the seditious duke of Bavaria, who however took revenge by inciting the Hungarians against Germany. They invaded the empire and carried destruction to the borders of France. Conrad died from a wound received in battle with them, and on his deathbed entreated his subjects to elect his former adversary, the duke of Saxony, his successor. IL King of Germany from 1024, and emperor of the Romans from 1027, died at Utrecht, June 4. 1039. He was one of the wisest and most energetic among the rulers of Germany. Immediately after his election he visited all the provinces of the empire, establishing law and order with a powerful hand. He proclaimed the treuga Dei (truce of God), and endeavored to base the imperial power more immediately

upon the lower nobility, that is to say, upon the people, since at that time the middle and lower classes were not yet thought of in politics. In 1026 he went to Italy, chastised the seditious vassal princes and municipalities, confirmed the rule of the Normans in southern Italy, and was crowned Roman emperor by the pope. Having restored peace and order throughout Italy, he returned to Germany, suppressed a rebellion instigated by Ernest of Swabia, repelled the Hungarians who attempted to wrest Bavaria from the empire, conquered Burgundy, and defeated the Poles, who made inroads into eastern Germany. While his son Henry subdued the Slavs, who had invaded northern Saxony, Conrad went once more to Italy, where the imperial authority was again defied by the nobles and clergy (1036). He was only partially successful, and was compelled to raise the siege of Milan, after which he returned to Germany. He was succeeded by his son Henry III. III. King of Germany, a son of Frederick of Swabia, born in 1093, died at Bamberg, Feb. 15, 1152. At the age of 20 he distinguished himself in the defence of the emperor Henry V. against his enemies. Returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, he found Lothaire, elected by the Guelph party, upon the imperial throne, against whom he was in 1128 crowned king by the Lombards, but was ultimately defeated, excommunicated, and his coronation declared null. Still his courage and frankness, perhaps also apprehensions of the overshadowing power of the Guelphs, obtained for him many friends among the German princes, and after Lothaire's decease (1137) he was elected king (1138). He now turned against his rival, Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and wrested Bavaria from him, but left him in possession of Saxony. The attempts of Henry's brother, Guelph IV., to reconquer Bavaria, were frustrated by Conrad. In the mean time the Italian municipalities had risen against the papal power, and Conrad was invited by both parties to aid them. Distrusting the friendship of the Italians, he declined to do so, nor was he tempted by the offer of the imperial crown. A crusade which he undertook, jointly with Louis VII. of France, was unsuccessful. He was defeated at Iconium in 1147, and compelled to desist from his attempts to conquer Damascus and Ascalon. When he returned to Germany, in 1148, he found disorder reigning supreme. The Guelphs, allied with the Norman king, Roger of Sicily, had once more tried to reconquer Bavaria; in Poland the legitimate duke Ladislas II. required Conrad's assistance against his own brothers; and Italy once more urged upon him the necessity of his presence. While preparing for a campaign in Italy, he suddenly died, probably poisoned by agents of King Roger. IV. King of Germany, born in Apulia in April, 1228, died at Lavello, May 21, 1254. The son of the emperor Frederick II., he was crowned king of the Romans in 1237, and succeeded his

father as king of Germany in 1250. With great energy he contended against the intrigues of the pope and the usurpations of his tools among the German princes, repulsed the Mongols who had invaded the empire, and succeeded in putting down his father's rival, Henry Raspe of Thuringia, set up by the pope (1247). But both before and after his accession he had to contend with a new rival king, William, count of Holland; and though in spite of defeat he maintained himself upon the throne, the prestige of his power was lost. Embarrassed by the increasing anarchy in Germany, he went to Italy in order to save at least the Apulian kingdom (1251). He subdued it once more, and conquered Naples; but the enmity of the pope, who had excommunicated him, foiled his efforts to reestablish the imperial authority. He fell a victim to a lingering disease, occasioned as was supposed by poison, leaving only an infant two years of age (Conradin) as the last heir of the dynasty of Hohenstaufen.

CONRAD, Karl Immanuel, a German architectural painter, born in Berlin, March 30, 1810. He studied in Berlin, and was a teacher of his art as early as 1830, soon producing many fine works. He subsequently applied himself, under the direction of Schadow at Düsseldorf, to the Romanesque and Gothic styles of art, and has executed many pictures of churches and other edifices. His masterpiece, representing the cathedral of Cologne, was painted in 1842 at the request of the king, and he made an enlarged copy of it, which was presented by the diocese of Cologne to Pius IX. on the 50th anniversary of his ordination as priest. He visited Belgium and France in 1845, England in 1851, and Italy in 1869. He has painted views of London, Windsor castle, Rome from the Pincio, and a picture of the pope's private apartments in the Vatican. In 1871 he was employed on a painting of the interior of the cathedral of Cologne. He excels in etching.

CONRAD, Robert T., an American jurist and author, born in Philadelphia, June 10, 1810, died June 27, 1858. While studying law, he wrote his first tragedy, "Conrad of Naples," which was produced successfully in the principal theatres of the country. Admitted to the bar at an early age, he became connected with the press, and after other editorial labors began in 1822 the publication of the "Daily Intelligencer" newspaper, which was subsequently merged in the "Philadelphia Gazette." He was obliged by ill health to abandon the labors of daily editorship, resumed the practice of law in 1834, and was appointed recorder of the recorder's court in 1835, judge of the court of criminal sessions in 1838, and of the court of general sessions in 1840. He afterward resumed practice as an advocate, and was editor of "Graham's Magazine," contributor to the "North American," president of a railroad company, and mayor of Philadelphia. While attending to his duties on the bench, he wrote the tragedy of "Aylmere," the hero of which is Jack

Cade, who takes the name of Aylmere while in exile in Italy, and is represented as a democratic patriot. He wrote another tragedy, "The Heretic," which has not been acted or published. A volume appeared from him in 1852, under the title of " Aylmere, or the Bondman of Kent, and other Poems" The principal of the additional poems are "The Sons of the Wilderness," composed of reflections on the fate of the Indians, and a series of sonnets on the Lord's prayer.

CONRADIN, the son of Conrad IV., duke of Swabia, and the last of the Hohenstaufen, born in 1252, beheaded Oct. 29, 1268. His father dying while he was an infant, he resided sometimes in the court of Louis of Bavaria, and at other periods under his protection at the castle of Ravensburg. He formed an intimate friendship with Frederick, son of the margrave of Baden, and, on the death of Manfred, who had acted as his regent and subsequently usurped the crown in the Apulian possessions, accepted the invitation of the Italian Ghibellines to place himself at their head. The greater part of the possessions of the Hohenstaufen had been swept away, and his stepfather, Meinhard II. count of Görz, watched every opportunity to seize the remaining inheritance of the family; for Conradin was yet duke of Swabia, and held the ancient Franconian possessions of the Salic emperors. He was aided in his determination by Meinhard and Louis of Bavaria, who accompanied him into Italy to further their own selfish designs. The sale of a large portion of his possessions to these men enabled him to raise troops. In the autumn of 1267 he crossed the Alps with 10,000 men, and at Verona was warmly received by the Scala family, the chief of the Ghibelline party. His relatives here, persuading him to part with his remaining possessions at a low price, deserted him with their followers, leav ing but 3,000 men. The Ghibellines, however, remained true to him. Verona raised a large army, Pisa a fleet, and Rome, whose pontiff was forced to flee to Viterbo, opened its gates to him. Conradin entered lower Italy, and at Tagliacozzo met the French army under Charles of Anjou, on whom the crown of Naples had been bestowed by the see of Rome. He beat Charles back, and his men, supposing the victory won, dispersed in search of plunder, when they were attacked by the French and utterly routed, Aug. 23, 1268. Conradin escaped, but was betrayed into the hands of Charles, who caused him to be beheaded in the market place of Naples, he being only 16 years of age.

CONRING, Hermann, a German philosopher and author, born at Norden, East Friesland, Nov. 9, 1606, died at Helmstedt, Dec. 12, 1681. He was the son of a clergyman, studied at Leyden, and was professor of philosophy, medicine, jurisprudence, and political science at Helmstedt, privy councillor to the duke of Brunswick, adviser of the emperor of Germany, and author of more than 100 works on Ger

man history and jurisprudence, and on scientific | and theological subjects. Queen Christina of Sweden in vain sought to attach him permanently to her service. The duke of Brunswick and the kings of Sweden and Denmark conferred titles on him, and Louis XIV. granted him a pension. He encouraged the study of chemistry and pharmacy, and was one of the first to teach Harvey's doctrine of the circulation of the blood. A complete edition of his writings, with a biography, was published by Göbel (6 vols., Brunswick, 1730). His daughter ELISA SOPHIE, baroness von Reichenbach, was distinguished as a poet; she died April 11, 1718.

CONSALVI, Ercole, a Roman cardinal, born in Rome, June 8, 1757, died there, Jan. 24, 1824. His father was the marchese Giuseppe Consalvi, and his mother Maria Carandini, sister of the cardinal of that name. Educated in the college of Frascati, he won the regard of Cardinal York, who remained through life his friend and protector. He entered very young the ranks of the Roman prelacy, and was soon appointed auditor of the rota, the highest civil court in Rome, at the solicitation, it is thought, of the exiled aunts of Louis XVI. He became minister of war to Pius VI., after whose death he was chosen secretary of the conclave which elected Pius VII. This election was in a great measure due to Consalvi's tact, and his reputation for ability caused the new pope to appoint him his pro-secretary of state, then cardinal, and finally titular secretary of state. In that capacity he proceeded to Paris in 1801, to negotiate a concordat for the restoration of religion. While the pope was in France on the occasion of the coronation of Napoleon, Consalvi remained at the head of the government in Rome. In 1806, when Napoleon quarrelled with the pope, he insisted on Consalvi's removal from office. The secretary besought Pius VII. not to hesitate in accepting his resignation as a peace offering, and the pope yielded, appointing Casoni his successor. In 1810 he was compelled by Napoleon to go to Paris, and for refusing to be present at the marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa was banished to Rheims. In 1813 he was permitted to join the pope in Fontainebleau, and advised him to recall the concordat which he had been forced to sign. On the first restoration Pius VII. sent him to Paris to compliment Louis XVIII.; and after the final downfall of Napoleon he continued to be the representative of the holy see in the congress of Vienna. He obtained the consent of the congress that the Papal States should be restored to their integrity, and successfully resisted the partition of France. He continued at the head of the Roman government until the death of Pius VII. in August, 1823. During his administration he did much to improve the Papal States; he advised and framed the motu proprio of 1816, suppressing all feudal rights, monopolies, and oppressive taxes; abolished torture, and

the punishment of the corda or estrapade; and to him also is due the abolishment of the death penalty for heresy. A new civil code, a commercial code, and a penal code were drawn up in harmony with the spirit of the age; he improved the registry of mortgages, introduced a better system of police, established workhouses in the principal towns, extirpated the banditti from the Campagna, planned the embellishment and sanitary improvement of Rome, and encouraged the liberal arts in the persons of Canova and Thorwaldsen. He left a large sum for a monument to Pius VII. Consalvi's memoirs have been published by Crétineau-Joly (2 vols., Paris, 1864).

CONSCIENCE, Hendrik, a Flemish novelist, born in Antwerp, Dec. 3, 1812. His father, a French marine speculator at Antwerp, allowed him to educate himself by eager but irregular reading. In 1829 he became a private teacher, and upon the Belgian revolution of 1830 he volunteered in the army and served six years, reaching the grade of sergeant major. During his service he wrote a number of spirited French songs, and became the popular poet of the army. Being discharged in 1836, he quarrelled with his family, and maintained himself by turns as a working gardener, an employee in the archives of Antwerp, and clerk of the academy of art. At this time a national party was trying to establish a Flemish literature in opposition to the French spirit and the philosophical ideas of the 18th century. Conscience joined this movement, and in 1837 brought out his In het Wonderjaer 1566 ("In the Year of Miracles 1566 "), containing a series of brilliant dramatic pictures of the Spanish rule in Flanders. This was received with great popular favor, but his success enraged his father, who renounced him entirely. Through the painter Wappers, however, he obtained a small pension from Leopold I., and was able to continue his literary career. His Leeuw van Vluenderen ("Lion of Flanders ") appeared in 1838, and gave him a national reputation. In 1845 he was appointed assistant professor in the university of Ghent, and subsequently became instructor of the royal children in the Flemish language and literature. In 1847 he was made professor, and in 1857 commissary of the administrative department of Courtrai. In 1870 he gained the prize of literature given every fifth year, by his Bavo en Lieveken, which is considered by some one of his best romances. Conscience has held consistently his purpose of restoring the Flemish idiom, and has discouraged the use of French by his countrymen, although able to use it himself with ease and power. He stands in the front rank of Flemish writers. His historical romances fail in ideal characterization, but are fresh and interesting. He is most successful in his quiet pictures of home life. His works have all been translated into German, and many of them into English, Danish, Italian, and French. Besides the works mentioned above, he has pub

lished Phantasia (1837), a collection of Flem- | ish poems and legends; Avonstunde ("Evening Hours, 1839"), and several other graceful sketches of Flemish manners; Geschiedenis van Belgien, an illustrated history gathered from old chronicles (1845); and a number of novels, partly historical,, among which may be mentioned Hugo van Craenhoeve (1845), Lambrecht Hensmans (1846), Jakob van Artevelde (1849), Baes Gansendonck (1850), De arme Edelman and De blinde Rosa (1851), De Boerenkryg (1853), Hlodwig en Clotildis (1854), De Plag der Dorpen (1855), Batavia (1858), Simon Turchi and Aurelien (1859), Het yzeren Graf (1860), Bella Stock (1861), Moederliefde (1862), and De Kerels van Vlaenderen (1871). He published his memoirs in the Revue Contemporaine in 1858.

CONSIDERANT, Victor, a French socialist, born at Salins, near Besançon, Oct. 12, 1808. He was educated in the polytechnic school in Paris, entered the army, and rose to the rank of captain of engineers. In 1831, having adopted the social theory of Fourier, he resigned his commission in order to devote himself to its advocacy. In 1832 he was engaged in an unsuccessful attempt to realize that theory at Condé-sur-Vesgre, about 40 m. from Paris, the funds being furnished by a wealthy Englishman. He was associated with Fourier in editing the organ of their school, and on his death in 1837 was recognized as the head of the societary school, as the body of his disciples called themselves, and became the chief editor of the Phalange, a monthly review, and of the Démocratie pacifique, a daily newspaper which they established in 1845. During this period he wrote and published several books, of which the most important is the Destinée sociale (3 vols., 1834-44). On the outbreak of the revolution of February, 1848, he adhered to the republican party, and was chosen to the constituent assembly from the department of Loiret. In 1849 he was elected to the legislative assembly from the city of Paris; but taking part on June 13 in the public demonstration, headed by Ledru-Rollin, in behalf of the Roman republic, he was compelled to withdraw to Belgium, where he published La dernière guerre et la paix définitive de l'Europe (1850), and La solution, ou le gouvernement direct du peuple (1851). In 1853 he visited the United States, and selected a site in Texas for a socialistic colony. Returning to Europe in 1854, he was arrested in Brussels on a charge of conspiracy, but was soon set at liberty. A company was then organized in Paris to establish the colony in Texas, and the settlement was named Réunion, but the socialistic attempt failed. Considérant, becoming naturalized as an American, remained in Texas till 1869, when he returned to France.

CONSIDERATION, in law. See CONTRACT. CONSISTORY, in the Roman Catholic church, the college of cardinals, assembled in session. There are three kinds of consistories: the pub

lic, secret, and semi-secret. The first is held with great pomp and ceremony, the pope presiding in full pontificals. None but cardinals are present at the deliberations of the second. Consistorial advocates are lawyers admitted to plead on matters treated of in the consistory, e. g., the canonization of saints; and they enjoy many privileges and emoluments.—In English law, the court held by each bishop for the trial and disposal of all ecclesiastical causes arising in his diocese is called a consistory. In some of the reformed churches the consistory is an ecclesiastical tribunal, corresponding to a church session in the Dutch church, and in others to a presbytery.

CONSOLS, a term denoting a considerable portion of the debts of Great Britain, known as the three per cent. consolidated annuities. The government has borrowed money at different periods upon special conditions, generally the payment of an annuity of so much per cent. on the sum borrowed, and sometimes by lotteries, as in 1747, in which the prizes were funded in perpetual annuities. Owing to the confusion arising from the variety of the stocks thus created, parliament in 1757 passed an act consolidating these annuities into one fund, to be kept in one account in the bank of England, bearing 3 per cent. interest. From time to time some additions have been made to the consols, and some diminution has been effected by the operation of the sinking fund and by the application of surplus revenue; but they are redeemable only at the option of the government. They constitute a transferable stock in which there is daily speculation, and the varying price is taken as an index of the value of other public securities.

CONSPIRACY, in criminal law, a combination by two or more persons to do an unlawful act, or to do something not in itself unlawful by criminal or unlawful means. Many things not punishable when done or contemplated by a single individual, become so when several confederate for the purpose; as in case of a combination to destroy one's reputation by slander, to cheat by false warranties, &c. To render the offence complete, it is not necessary that the purpose should be accomplished, or even that any overt act be done in pursuance of the conspiracy; the offence consisting in the unlawful agreement, and not in the acts which follow it.

CONSTABLE (Fr. connétable, from Lat. comes stabuli, count of the stable, or master of the horse), a title of office borrowed from Byzantine and old French usage. The constable of France was an officer of the highest rank under the king, having the chief command of the army, the cognizance of military offences, and the authority to regulate all matters of chivalry, such as tilts, tournaments, &c. The office was suppressed by Louis XIII., but revived by Napoleon, and again suppressed at the restoration. In England the office of lord high constable is as old as the conquest, and was hereditary, with powers and duties corresponding to those