Opothleyaholo and the Loyal Muskogee: Their Flight to Kansas in the Civil WarIn 1861, Lt. William Averell was dispatched to Indian Territory on a secret mission intended to close the forts that protected the Creeks, Seminoles, Chickasaws, Choctaws, and Cherokees. The South immediately seized the opportunity to woo the Indian nations to the Confederacy. The South anticipated some trouble with John Ross, the Cherokee chief, but expected little difficulty from the other tribes. But they had forgotten about a leader of the Muskogees, called Creeks by the whites, named Opothleyaholo. Opothleyaholo had endured the Trail of Tears in 1836, when the Creek had been uprooted from their homelands in Alabama and Georgia and sent to the Arkansas Territory. Despite hardships, they eventually prospered in the new territory. As the Civil War approached, Opothleyaholo fully understood the strategic importance of the Indian Territory to the Confederacy and knew that an alliance with its government would undoubtedly lead to the demise of his people. Despite his distrust of the American government, which consistently broke their promises to the Indian nations, he sided with the United States and fought bravely, only to be deserted by its troops when he needed them most. Retreating to southern Kansas during the worst winter in memory, at least 240 of his followers--men, women, and children--died in Wilson County, Kansas, in 1862. This is the story of a little-remembered part of the years leading up to the Civil War and the bravery and misfortune of the Indian tribes in the conflict. |
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Contents
Acknowledgments | 1 |
The Wolf Has Come | 7 |
Opothleyaholo and the Muskogees | 10 |
The Europeans Invade | 17 |
Annihilation at Horseshoe Bend | 23 |
Georgias 1802 Compact | 29 |
The Indian Springs Treaty | 34 |
Execution of Chief McIntosh | 43 |
Resettlement and Recovery | 95 |
Kansas Territorys Border War | 104 |
Secession Begins | 111 |
Southern Emissaries in Indian Territory | 120 |
Lt Averells Secret Mission | 124 |
Alliance with the Confederacy | 136 |
Indian Territory Isolated from Union | 145 |
Look to the Beaver Road | 158 |
The Investigation of General Gaines | 48 |
Opothleyaholo Meets President Adams | 55 |
A New Treaty | 61 |
Andrew Jackson and Indian Removal | 74 |
West Toward Indian Territory | 85 |
A Place Called Roes Fork | 174 |
The Indian Home Guards | 192 |
We Are the Color of the Earth | 210 |
237 | |
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Common terms and phrases
Adams agent Alabama American State Papers Annual Report Arbuckle Arkansas army Averell Barbour battle became believed camp Carruth ceded Cherokees Chickasaws chiefs Choctaws Coffin command Commissioner of Indian Confederacy Confederate council Creek Nation Crowell Cutler delegation Dole Emory Five Civilized Tribes Fort Gibson Fort Scott Fort Smith Fort Washita Gaines Georgia Gibson History Hogan hostile Ibid Indian Affairs Indian Office Indian Springs Treaty Indian Territory Jackson Kansas Territory knew land Lane Leavenworth Daily Conservative LeRoy Little Prince Lower Creeks McCulloch McIntosh Menawa miles military Mississippi Missouri move Neosho Neosho River Official Records Opothleyaholo Osage Pike President protection Rebels Red Sticks refugees regiment removal Ross Sac and Fox Scott Secessionists Seminoles South southern Kansas Southern Superintendency Stand Watie Texas Thomas Yahola Trail troops Troup Tuckabatchee Union Indians United Upper Creeks Verdigris Verdigris River wanted warriors Washington Washita Watie William Wilson County