inquiry in every tribe where statistical information can be procured, as a matter connected with the physical history of the people; but it has a particular relation to the prevalence of polygamy.

The mode of civil government should everywhere be a subject of inquiry. The more simple nations are often without any common and central government, and are in the habit of only appointing a leader in time of war, when they select for some temporary enterprise as their chieftain some individual whose fame and prowess inspire them with confidence in his guidance. Some nations have been entirely without the idea of combining for mutual aid, and the Finnish races are said to have been conquered by the Germanic nations piecemeal, one family after another falling under the yoke, till all were subdued. The Polynesian nations have princes or chieftains, according to some well-understood laws. We are not yet acquainted with the social institutions of the Papuas, if they have any such among them, which is probable. It is very desirable that the fact should be ascertained by inquiry.

The religious impressions and the superstitious practices of every tribe of men should be carefully investigated, as forming a remarkable part of the history of the particular people, and an item in the psychological history of mankind. It is probable that no human race is destitute of some belief, more or less explicit or obscure, in the existence of supernatural powers, good and evil, and likewise of a future and invisible state. But there are nations who scarcely recognise in the invisible being anything like will or power to punish the guilty or reward the good, and who do not suppose the future state to be a scene of retribution. This is the account which missionaries and other persons have given of the Polynesian superstitions.

The adoration of rude nations is generally directed towards visible objects. From this remark we must except most of the American nations, who are said to believe in the existence of a spiritual ruler of the universe. By one class of rude nations the heavenly bodies are worshipped, and the

Polynesians connect this superstition with a mythology which is poetical and not devoid of ingenuity. Others, like the African nations, worship fetiches, or visible objects, in which they suppose some magical or supernatural power to be concealed, capable of exercising an influence on their destiny and of ensuring success in any undertaking—a superstition of which traces are to be discovered among the vulgar in many countries. In all instances it is important to note the names given to gods or to other objects of worship, as well as those given to the priests, as these may put us on the trace of the ways of civilization.

In every tribe of people among whom intelligent travellers may hereafter be thrown, it should be a subject of inquiry how far any of these observations may be confirmed and extended by the history of their superstitious belief and practices, and to what division of nations they are by such traits associated.

III. Language, Poetry, Literature.

As no other means have contributed so much to the increase of ethnology, and to the ascertaining of the connexions and relationship of different nations, as a comparison of languages, great care should be taken in every newlydiscovered country, and among tribes whose history is not perfectly known, to collect the most correct information as to the language of the people.

Among tribes of people who have any poetry or other literature, pains should be taken to obtain the best specimens of composition in their languages. Manuscripts in their languages should be procured if it can possibly be done; and it would be worth while to incur even a considerable expense rather than forego such an opportunity.

In countries where the inhabitants have no knowledge of letters, it may sometimes be found that they have preserved oral compositions, generally in some sort of verse, which they have recorded in their memory, and handed down from one generation to another. It would be very desirable in such a case to write down the most complete specimen of

any such pieces, and to select any which relate to the ancient and primeval history of the people.

If no literature or compositions of any kind have been preserved, the best things that can be done will be the following:

I. To get some intelligent person to translate into the prevailing language some continuous composition, and to copy it from his mouth with the greatest care. Get in the first place the Lord's Prayer, since this same composition has been most frequently collected already, and exists in a much greater number of languages than any other. Next to the Lord's Prayer, which does not contain a sufficient quantity of words, the Gospel of St. Luke probably exists in a greater number of languages than any other composition. The sixth, and perhaps also the seventh chapter, may be selected from this Gospel. A good translation of these two chapters will enable a person skilled in philology to furnish a tolerably complete analysis of almost any language.

II. A vocabulary should also be taken down from the mouths of intelligent natives. Care should be taken to compare the words given by one person with the testimony of others, in order to correct any defect or peculiarity of pronunciation.

It is very important to select properly the classes of words. The following should be chosen :

1. The numerals up to a hundred or more. Ascertain how far the people of each tribe can reckon.

2. Words denoting family relations, such as father, mother, brother, sister, &c.

3. Names of the different parts of the body-head, arm, foot, &c.

4. Names of visible natural objects, elements, &c.-sun, moon, fire, water, &c.

5. Names of animals, especially domestic animals.

6. Verbs expressive of universal bodily acts, such as eat, drink, walk, sleep, see, hear, &c.

7. Personal pronouns-I, thou, he, &c.

8. Prepositions-in, from, to, &c.-if they can be obtained.

III. It would be useful, in the third place, to observe some of the grammatical rules of the language, if opportunity exists of becoming acquainted with them; though, if any composition of some length shall have been obtained, the grammatical analysis may be furnished afterwards. It will not, however, be amiss to make the following observations :

:

One great feature in the grammatical structure of dif ferent languages, which distinguishes several classes of languages from each other, is the peculiar position given to auxiliary words in sentences. By auxiliary words are meant such words as have no proper meaning of their own, but tend to explain the relation of nouns and verbs. Such are prepositions in our language-upon, in, through, &c. It should be observed what position such words hold with relation to nouns. It is a character of one great class of languages-viz. the Tartar dialect, or the languages of High Asia-to place all such particles at the end of nouns: thus prepositions become postpositions. In most African languages, as yet known, particles are placed at the beginnings of words; and that is the case not only with prepositions, but with particles of all kinds, such as syllables which change the singular into the plural number, as Anakosah becomes the plural of Kosah. Again, in the American language, particles, are as it were swallowed up by the principal words, or are inserted in the middle of them.

It may be right to observe also whether languages admit the composition of words making compound epithets by amalgamating two or more simple words.

Observe also whether the words, such as names of objects, are monosyllables, or consist of several syllables.*

On the subject of this article may be consulted the 'Manual of Ethnological Inquiry, prepared by a Sub-committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1851,' which may be procured from Messrs. Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street.

ARTICLE XI.

FOURTH DIVISION, SECTION 1.

GEOLOGY.

BY CHARLES DARWIN, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S.

A PERSON embarked on a naval expedition, who wishes to attend to Geology, is placed in a position in some respects highly advantageous, and in others as much to the contrary. He can hardly expect, during his comparatively short visits at one place, to map out the area and sequence of widely extended formations; and the most important deductions in geology must ever depend on this having been carefully executed; he must generally confine himself to isolated sections and small areas, in which, however, without doubt, many interesting facts may be collected. On the other hand, he is admirably situated for studying the still active causes of those changes, which, accumulated during long-continued ages, it is the object of geology to record and explain. He is borne on the ocean, from which most sedimentary formations have been deposited. During the soundings which are so frequently carried on, he is excellently placed for studying the nature of the bottom, and the distribution of the living organisms and dead remains strewed over it. Again, on sea-shores, he can watch the breakers slowly eating into the coast-cliffs, and he can examine their action under various circumstances: he here sees that going on in an infinitesimally small scale which has planed down whole continents, levelled mountainranges, hollowed out great valleys, and exposed over wide