amongst these features, and their extent and depth and qualities should be ascertained.

6. Line of coast, &c.-This may be indeed said to be the peculiar province of the naval officer, and has been more fully treated of under the head of Hydrography; but as it forms one of the chief boundaries of those great geographical subdivisions, the details of which we have been here alluding to, we must not omit a brief allusion to some of its most important features. And particularly, with regard to the actual line of coast itself, the traveller should remark the various headlands jutting out into the sea, as well as the deep bays and recesses running up into the land, and affording refuge from the dangers occasioned by the neighbouring headlands; and he should also notice all gaps and breaks in the continuity of hills or cliffs or mountain ranges, the occurrence and nature of rivers and streams emptying themselves into the sea, the character and extent of their mouths, the nature of the detritus and alluvial matter brought down by them, and whether or not deltas are formed near their mouths. In another aspect he should inform us whether the coast is bold or flat, whether formed by cliffs or by sloping plains, and whether the rivers enter the sea by one or by numerous channels; and, if circumstances should enable him to do so, whether the coast is clear from danger, or whether sunken rocks and reefs render more than usual precaution necessary in approaching it; whether the sea deepens gradually or suddenly, and whether there are any extensive shoals or sand-banks near the shore; and whether these appear to belong to the same formation as the adjacent mountains, or to have been carried thither by tides or currents, &c.

It is also desirable to obtain the fullest information respecting the changes which take place from time to time either in the line of coast or in shoals and sand-banks. The latter, particularly when occurring near the mouths of large rivers, or of such as bring down much detritus from the interior, like the Mississippi or the Ganges, or even the Hermus in the Gulf of Smyrna, are very liable to shift,

according to the prevailing winds and currents at different periods. The line of coast is also often subject to considerable changes in itself, in some places gradually extending out to sea, in others eating its way as gradually back inland; and it is remarkable that it is precisely the bold and lofty cliff which appears to offer such an insuperable barrier to the ocean waves, that crumbles away under their never-ceasing attacks, particularly when unprotected by a sloping talus of shingle; while the low, flat, marshy coast, offering no visible resistance to the advancing waves, and constantly covered by the muddy waters, is that which, owing to the deposits of mud and silt left by each succeeding tide, is gradually raised above its former level until it forms a real barrier to the waves, while it is slowly extended by the same process far beyond the spot which the sea formerly reached.

The nature of the shore also should be carefully ascertained, whether it consists generally of sand or mud, or rocks, either in the shape of reefs, or occurring as detached blocks; also whether the landing is easy or not on the beach, and whether this consists of sand or shingle. What bays or coves occur along the line of coast to serve as harbours of refuge? What is the nature of the anchorage? Are there any harbours along the coast? and how far have natural harbours been rendered more available and safe by the erection of breakwaters or piers?

7. Oceans, their depths and currents; Islands, Rocks, Shoals, &c. -With regard to the ocean itself, many of the objects of inquiry are the same as those which have been already mentioned with respect to lakes. Its depth and its colour, as well as other peculiarities, must be noted. The nature of the bottom should more especially be ascertained by soundings, whether consisting of mud or sand, or rock, or whatever other substances may be brought up from the bottom; when varied, the extent of each should be noticed. Not only is the important question of a good holding ground or anchorage connected with these facts, but the natural productions to be found in different seas depend chiefly on

the character of the bottoms, and the algae and other marine plants which grow on them. The direction and strength of currents must also be observed, as well as their prevalence or usual duration, where liable to change. Prevailing winds should also be noticed. The great improvements introduced into Atlantic navigation, particularly amongst the Americans, since the publication of Lieutenant Maury's charts of the winds and currents of the North Atlantic, afford the best proof of the value of these observations. Tides also must not be forgotten: their amounts as well as their periods and durations are important. In some inland seas they appear to be rather influenced by meteorological than astronomical causes-to be dependent on the force of regular winds rather than on the attraction of the sun and moon. But other incidental peculiarities also require notice, such as storms and tempests, hurricanes and tornadoes, particularly when of frequent occurrence, or when recurring at regular intervals or at certain periods of the year. The permanent effects produced by them (if any) should also be registered, such as surfs, breakers, rollers, &c.

In the next place the maritime geographer should direct his attention to the islands, rocks, or shoals which occur in different seas; their extent and position should be carefully noted, as well as the depth of water round them; their harbours and facilities for landing; what supply of fresh water can be obtained; whether near the shore or not, or whether convenient for watering ships, &c.; what rivers or streams are met with, as well as their natural productions. Reefs and rocks, whether visible or sunken, and constantly below the surface of the water, as well as shoals, should be examined and described, and the depth of water over them carefully ascertained.

In concluding this first division of the subject, we must also mention a few points connected with the physical features of the country, which, being of an accidental rather than of a normal character, did not easily find a place in the more obvious subdivisions of the subject. The

traveller should pay particular attention to those phenomena in the physical structure of the country which are sometimes called natural curiosities. Amongst the principal of these are grottoes, caves, and caverns: some of them are not only strikingly beautiful, but of great scientific interest. They are more usually met with in limestone districts than in any other; it is interesting to ascertain their size and extent, and the distance to which they have been traced. Are they traversed by subterranean streams; and if so, do these streams enter or escape by known channels or mouths, as is frequently the case in Istria and Carniola, and in the west of Ireland? Natural bridges present another instance of this kind of phenomena. How have they been formed, and what is the nature of the rock of which they consist? Are they stalactitic, or of a more compact nature? Mines are also to be noticed, although they come more directly under the head of geological observation. Volcanic phenomena and earthquakes are also deserving of notice. Springs of fresh water rising up in the sea are not of unusual occurrence; and any information respecting them is always desirable, such as the depth of water, and the effect of the fresh water on the surrounding ocean. Within the last few years several ancient sites on the coast of Greece have been satisfactorily identified by the discovery of these interesting springs. Any instances of that remarkable phenomenon observed in Cephalonia, where the sea-water constantly flows inland into a hollow in the rocks, should also be carefully described. In short, it may be safely asserted that there is no single fact connected with the physical structure of the earth, falling under the notice of an intelligent observer, which may not be of value or importance either to himself or others, if he will only give himself the trouble of carefully noting it down on the spot, with as much accuracy and detail as circumstances will permit. With this view we must again urge what was stated at the beginning, and would add, in the words of Mr. Darwin, "Trust nothing to the memory; for the memory becomes a fickle guardian when one inte

resting object is succeeded by another still more interesting."

II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

We now proceed to notice some of the principal features to which attention should be directed on the subject of political or statistical geography. In many respects this branch of our subject approaches very closely to that either of statistics or of ethnology, to the consideration of which distinct and separate articles will be devoted; we will here however endeavour to confine ourselves to the definition already given, and to avoid those questions of detail which are more peculiarly the province of the statist or of the ethnologist. Nor can it be expected that the casual visitor should devote to the examination of documents and books the time that is necessary to arrive at any important results in reference to these questions, or to make much progress in the investigation of a subject, however important, when the whole value of the information depends on the extent and minute accuracy of its details; but yet there are many matters connected with man's social state which the traveller may easily elucidate by availing himself of the opportunities thrown in his way, and carefully preserving the information he obtains.

This branch of our subject may properly be divided into the following heads :

1. Population; different races of inhabitants.
2. Language; words and vocabularies.

3. Government; ceremonies and forms.

4. Buildings; towns, villages, houses.

5. Agriculture; implements of labour and peculiarities of soil.

6. Trade and Commerce. Roads and other means of Communication.

1. Population. One of the most interesting inquiries on visiting new countries relates to the habits and customs of the people by whom they are inhabited. But the oral in