The difference between these compounds and the use of a separate particle may be illustrated by comparing inhold with hold in, outrun with run out, uphold with hold up, overthrow with throw over, understand with stand under, forego with go before, backslide with slide back, withhold with hold with.

VIII. THE FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS.

§ 316. 1. COMPOSITION is the combination of two words expressing distinct ideas, so as to form one word expressing one idea. The word thus formed is called a compound.

2. Composition differs essentially from the formation of words by internal change of vowel and by suffixes, in this, that derivation gives us different forms of ideas; as, Drink (noun), drinker, drinking (noun), to drench, all forms or modifications of the radical idea to drink; to set, to settle, sitter, setter, seat, sitting (noun), all from the radical idea to sit; while composition gives us species of idea; as, School-house, state-house, alms-house, all species under the general term house; door-key, chestkey, watch-key, species of keys.

3. Notwithstanding which, there is some common ground for derivation and composition, and the two forms may alternate. In such a case the derivative is the most forcible, and the compound is the most precise in its import. Thus we have in English (neglecting accidental differences of usage) hunter and huntsman, speaker and spokesman, trader and tradesman, plower and plowman, hatter and hat-maker, steamer and steam-boat, bakery and bake-house, brewery and brew-house, patchery and patch-work, treasury and treasure-house, deemster and domesman; so also where the words are radically distinct; as, Fowler and bird-catcher, Hollander and Dutchman, journal and day-book, marine and seaman, navigating and seafaring, propitiatory and mercy-seat, vintage and grape-gathering, vintner and wine-seller. These coincidences take place only when the second part of the compound is a very general or indefinite term, or has become so by use. In this way words originally compound acquire

much of the character of derivatives.

4. Composition differs, also, from the mere syntactical combination of ideas. Composition is a development of words for constant, not merely for occasional use. We have death-wound, not life-wound; father-land, not son-land; fox-hunter, not sheep-hunter; earth-quake, not seaquake; brown bread, not fresh bread; sea-sick, not terror-sick, because the latter terms of these couplets are not called for.

5. The difference between the compound word and the mere syntactical construction may be seen,

(1.) By comparing black-bird, a species of bird, with a black bird; so red-bird, black-berry, mad-house.

(2.) By comparing fox-tail, a plant so named from resemblance, with the tail of a fox; so goat's-beard, lady's-finger.

(3.) By comparing rat's-bane, a substance so called from its nature, with the bane of a rat; so catch-fly, king's-evil, liver-wort.

6. The unity of the compound is further evident by considering, (1.) That in many words the members of the composition do not apWhat is composition? What are some of its characteristics, and from what does it differ?

pear at first view, nor are they generally understood; as, Biscuit, curfew, daisy, kerchief.

(2.) That in many words the meaning has so altered that the reason of the composition is not obvious; as, Frankincense, holiday, landlord.

(3.) That compounds may often be expressed by simple words, either in the same or another language; as, Brimstone, sulphur; May-bug, a chaffer; wine-glass, a tumbler; sheep-fold, Latin ovile; vine-yard, Latin vinea; foot-man, Latin pedes; oak-grove, Latin quercetum; dove-house, Latin columbarium,

TEUTONIC COMPOUNDS.

§ 317. I. Imperfect Composition.-When the two words denote distinct attributes of one and the same object, and their syntactical connection may be expressed by the simple conjunction and, the composition is then incomplete or imperfect. Of this nature are,

1. The union of two common names; as, God-man, God and man. 2. The union of two adjectives; as, Deaf-mute, deaf and mute; firstlast, first and last (used by Young).

3. The union of two numerals; as, Fourteen, four and ten (comp. Lat. quatuordecim).

4. The union of two synonymous or nearly synonymous words; as, Hap-hazard, hap and hazard (comp. Germ. ehrfurcht, honor and fear).

Words of Teutonic origin, of this class, divide the accent or tone between the two parts of the compound; as, God-man; while those of Latin origin follow the analogy of English words; as, Hermaphrodite.

That the two words are united in one is evident from the fact that the latter part only of the compound is capable of change by inflection or derivation; as, genitive God-man's, plural deaf-mutes, derivative ordinal fourteenth, etc.

II. Perfect Composition.-When the two words form one complex idea, then the composition is complete or perfect. Of this there are two kinds :

1. When the two parts of the compound are in apposition or concord with each other. Here may be included,

(1.) The union of two common names; as, Foe-man.

(2.) The union of the species and genus; as, Oak-tree.

(3.) The union of a proper name and the genus; as, Flint River. (4.) The union of two proper names; as, Charles Richards.

2. When one part of the compound stands in rection, or government, in reference to the other, the latter part of the composition expressing the principal or generic idea, and the former part some modification thereof; as, Snow-white, steam-boat.

The modifications to be expressed by the former part of the composition are very numerous.

3. The first word has the form of the genitive case:

(1). In some names of plants; as, Bear's-ear, cat's-foot, lady's-bower, Turk's-turban, etc.

(2.) In some names of minerals; as, Cat's-eye, rať's-bane. (3.) In some nautical terms; as, Cat's-paw.

Give some instances of the three different kinds of composition.

(4.) In some miscellaneous examples; as, Day's-man, king's evil, kinsfolk, kinsman, kinswoman, spokesman.

Sometimes these compounds contain the remains of ancient cases: (1.) of the genitive; as, Aqueduct, from Latin aquæ ductus, a conveyance of water; (2.) of the dative; as, Deodand, from Latin Deo dandum, a thing forfeited to God; (3.) of the ablative; as, Vicegerent, from Latin vice gerens, acting by substitution; manumission, from Latin manu missio, a setting free; locomotive, from Latin loco motivus, changing its place; (4.) of the locative; as, Nightingale, from Teutonic nachtigall, a bird that sings in the night; (5.) of the genitive plural; as, Triumvir, from Latin trium vir, a man of three.

As the first part of the compound modifies the second, it is easy to distinguish between bean-pole, a pole for beans, and pole-bean, a bean that grows around poles; work-house, a house for work, and house-work, work done in a house; freight-ship, a ship for freight, and ship-freight, the freight carried by a ship; flower-garden, a garden for flowers, and garden-flower, a flower growing in a garden; book-shop, a shop for books, and shop-book, an account-book; mankind, the kind or race of man, and kinman, a man of the same race or family; chestnut-horse, a horse of the color of a chestnut, and horse-chestnut, a large nut; compare AngloSaxon theow-weorc, slave-work, and weorc-theow, work-slave.

Sometimes, when the two terms are in apposition, the parts of the compound may be inverted without an essential change in the meaning; as, Servant-woman and woman-servant.

III. Inverted Composition.-There is a class of compound words deserving some attention, in which the order of the terms is inverted; as, Breakfast, break-promise. This class includes,

1. Words peculiar to the English language:

(1.) Trivial names in botany and zoology; as, Break-stone (obsolete); catch-fly, wagtail.

(2.) Marine terms; as, Break-water, cut-water.

(3.) Terms used by printers; as, Catch-word.

(4.) Words of reproach; as, Break-promise (obsolete), break-vow (obsolete), catch-poll, cut-purse, cut-throat, hang-dog (obsolete), kill-buck (obsolete), kill-cow (obsolete), pick-lock, pick-fault (obsolete), pickpocket, pickpurse, pick-quarrel (obsolete), pickthank, scape-gallows, scapethrift (obsolete), scare-crow, smellfeast, spendthrift, telltale, turncoat, turnspit, toss-pot, want-wit.

(5.) Miscellaneous words; as, Breakfast (probably used at first to denote a trivial meal), catch-penny, pick-tooth.

It is easily seen that there is one character pervading this sort of words.

2. Words derived from the French which are more dignified; as, Pastime, port-crayon, port-folio, portmanteau, wardrobe; also, hotchpot.

IX. DISGUISED TEUTONIC DERIVATIVES AND COMPOUNDS.

§ 318. Derivatives and compounds in English, as in other languages, are usually formed on regular principles. Some few of them, however, especially those coming into extensive use, are so corrupted or disguised as greatly to obscure their origin.

Give some instances of disguised Teutonic derivatives,

EXAMPLES.-1. Atone, literally to be, or cause to be, at one, compounded of at and one.

2. Daisy (Anglo-Saxon dæges eage, day's eye, compounded of dæges, day's, and eage, eye), the name of a spring flower, as if the eye of the day.

3. Not (Old German niowiht, compounded of ne and awiht; AngloSaxon nawht, compounded of ne and awht), a particle expressing negation, denial, or refusal; the same word as naught or nought, compounded of ne, not, and aught, any thing.

CLASSICAL ELEMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

§ 319. The following statements on this subject are deemed important:

1. The separation between Gothic or Teutonic and Classic words needs to be made with great discrimination.

Thus wade and waddle are of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon wadan, German waten and watscheln), and not to be derived from Latin vado.

Drag is of Teutonic_origin (compare Anglo-Saxon dragan, German tragen), and not from Latin traho.

Long, length, and linger, are of Teutonic origin (compare MosoGothic laggs, Anglo-Saxon lang, length, German lang), and not from Latin longus.

Meager is of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon mæger, German mager), and not from Latin macer. The orthography meager seems, however, to have been affected by the French form maigre, which perhaps is of Teutonic origin.

Rank and rankle are of Teutonic origin (compare Anglo-Saxon ranc, German ranzig), and not from Latin ranceo.

2. The cognate roots in Latin and Teutonic, when they coexist in the English language, need to be noticed.

Thus, Latin V vad, whence come invade, invasion; and Anglo-Saxon V wade, whence come wader, wading, waddle.

Latin v volv, whence come revolve, revolution, revolt, voluble, volume, volute, volt, valve; and Anglo-Saxon √ wealw, whence come wallow, wallower, wallowing.

Latin trah, whence come trace, track, attractive, portray; and Anglo-Saxon v drag, whence come drag, draw, draggle.

This point is the more important, as, out of two hundred Latin roots involved in English words, more than one third are cognate to roots already existing in the Teutonic portion of our language. The cognation in stem-nouns is probably not so great.

3. Words of Latin and words of Greek origin should be distinguished from each other. This separation often requires nice discrimination. Thus, aerology and aeronaut are from the Greek aer; and aerial and aeriform are from the Latin aer.

4. The cognate roots of the Latin and Greek languages, when they coexist in the English language, need to be noticed. Thus, Greek ✓ ag, whence paragoge, and Latin Vag, whence agent; Greek √ aph, whence apsis, and Latin Vap, whence apt; Greek v aug, whence auxesis, and Latin Vaug, whence augment; Greek ✓ klin, whence

clinic, and Latin √ clin, whence incline; Greek ✓ kri, whence crisis, and Latin root cre, whence secret; Greek V gen, whence genesis, and Latin gen, whence general; Greek v gno, whence gnosis, and Latin Vgno, whence ignorant.

5. The corresponding forms of Greek and Latin prefixes should be noticed. Thus, Greek an-Latin in (negative); Greek anti-Latin ante; Greek apo Latin ab; Greek dia-Latin dis; Greek ec= =Latin e or ex; Greek en Latin in.

6. The corresponding forms of Greek and Latin suffixes should be noticed. Thus, Greek icos-Latin icus; Greek ôn=Latin ens; Greek tos Latin tus.

7. The difference of the union-vowel in Latin and in Greek compounds should be attended to. Thus, aer-i-form and agr-i-culture come from the Latin, and aer-o-naut and phil-o-sophy from the Greek.

8. The distinction between stem-words and derivatives from the same root should be noticed. Thus, toga is a stem-word, and tegument a derivative from Latin V teg.

9. The distinction between primary derivatives and secondary derivatives from the same root should be noticed. Thus, agile is a primitive derivative, and agility a secondary derivative from Latin ✓ ag.

10. The mutilated or disguised Latin forms should be noted, and referred to their regular forms. Thus, boil should be referred to the ✓ bull, in ebullition; noy to the V noc, in innocent; cay, in decay, to the ✓ cad, in decadence.

11. The combination of Latin and Teutonic words to make one family should be noticed. Thus, length from the Anglo-Saxon, and longitude from the Latin, are so combined; also, son from the Anglo-Saxon, and filial from the Latin.

12. Greek words which have come down to us from the Teutonic should be distinguished from others. Such words are alms, bishop, devil, priest.

13. Latin words which have come down to us through the AngloSaxon should be distinguished from others. Such words are ark, candle, chalice, etc.

The best mode of exhibiting these things, in the common manuals, to the mind of the pupil, is still a desideratum.

NATURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE LATIN PORTION OF OUR LANGUAGE.

§ 320. The natural development of the Latin language, so far as the Latin portion of our tongue is concerned, has been nearly as follows:

I. Stem-verbs, or roots, originally denoting physical action or motion; as, Bib, carp, cede, fend, lave, merge, move, plague, probe, sculp, tend, tinge, urge, verge, vex.

Most of the verbs here concerned appear in English only in derivatives and compounds. To these, in accordance with the practice of European philologists, we prefix the mathematical surd sign v; as, √ i, 66 to go;" V sta, to stand;" Vag, "to drive;" V duc, "to lead;" Vfrag, "to break."

II. Stem-adjectives, to be referred in each case to a verbal root,