3. W, the element of the first person plural, appears in we, our,

ours, us.

4. Th, the element of the second person singular, intermediate between Latin t and German d, appears in thou, thy, thine, thee. Perhaps radically connected with th, the demonstrative element mentioned below.

5. Y, the element of the second person plural, appears in ye, your, yours, you.

6. H, the element of the third person and of the nearer demonstrative, appears in he, his, him, her (genitive and accusative), it (AngloSaxon hit), its, hence, here, hither.

7. Th, the element of the more remote demonstrative, appears in that, those, this, these, the, thilk, thence, there, thither, then, thus, though, they, their, theirs, them. But this and these have been transferred to the nearer demonstratives, and they, their, theirs, and them are used as pronouns of the third person.

8. S, another form of the remoter demonstrative element, appears in she, so, some, also, as, such.

9. Wh, the interrogative element, appears in who, what, whose, whom, which, whether, whence, where, whither, when, how, why. All these words, excepting whether, are also employed as relatives.

II. TEUTONIC STEM-WORDS OR ROOTS.

§ 309. With the exception of pronouns, interjections, and a few onomatopoetical forms, words in English, as well as in most other languages, are, as linguistical signs of ideas, composed of two parts, viz., the root, and the modifying element which is attached to the root and gives it its form.

A root, taken in its strictest sense, is a significant element, from which words, as forms of thought and parts of speech, are derived. It is not itself a word, but that which lies at the foundation of a whole family of words; but, in common parlance, the name is extended to words derived immediately from the root, which are, as it were, the first sections of the trunk or stem which appear above the ground. It is convenient to give the root such a vowel or enunciation as it assumes in its first birth or coming into existence. Thus band may be considered the root of band, bind, bond, bundle, &c.

Roots, in the looser sense, generally denote physical objects, are monosyllabic in their form, composed of simple rather than double consonants, and of the primary rather than the secondary vowels.

The difficulty in tracing the root in English consists,

(1.) In its being hidden or concealed by the numerous syllables by which it is surrounded; as i in transitoriness, dic in dedicate,

(2.) In its being changed by euphonic laws; as, frag in fragile, frangible, refract, infringe, break, breach, &c.; leg in legible, collect.

(3.) In its being modified in different languages; as, German tod, English death.

(4.) In the meaning being changed; as, Canvas, hemp, both connected with Latin cannabis; kid and goat, both connected with Latin hædus ; host and guest, both connected with Latin hostis.

Give some instances of Teutonic verbal stem-words or roots.

(5.) In its involving, from the mixed character of our language, a knowledge of the euphonic laws severally of the Greek, Latin, Teutonic, and also the Sanscrit languages.

LIST OF TEUTONIC ROOTS.

§ 310. 1. Belonging to what may be called the first conjugation of the strongly inflected verbs: 1. bear; 2. break; 3. come; 4. shear; 5. speak; 6. steal; 7. stick; 8. tear; 9. wear; 10. weave.

2. Belonging to the second conjugation: 1. bind; 2. climb; 3. cling; 4. delve; 5. dig; 6. drink; 7. fight; 8. find; 9. fling; 10. gin (in begin); 11. grind; 12. help; 13. melt; 14. ring; 15. run; 16. shrink; 17. sing; 18. sink; 19. sling; 20. slink; 21. spin; 22. spring; 23. sting; 24. stink; 25. string; 26. swell; 27. swim; 28. swing; 29. win; 30. wind; 31. wring.

3. Belonging to the third conjugation: 1. bid; 2. eat; 3. get; 4. give; 5. knead; 6. lie; 7. queath; 8. see; 9. sit; 10. spit; 11. tread; also 12. bide; 13. bite; 14. chide; 15. hide; 16. ride; 17. shite; 18. slide; 19. smite; 20. stride; 21. strike; 22. strive; 23. thrive; 24. write; 25. writhe.

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4. Belonging to the fourth conjugation: 1. choose 2. cleave; 3. draw; 4. freight; 5. heave; 6. sake; 7. shake; 8. shape; 9. slay; 10. stand; 11. stave; 12. swear; 13. wake; 14. wave; 15. wax.

5. Belonging to the fifth conjugation: 1. drive; 2. rise; 3. shine ; 4. wit.

6. Belonging to the sixth conjugation: 1. bow; 2. flee; 3. fly; 4. hew; 5. flow; 6. grow; 7. freeze; 8. lie; 9. lye; 10. seethe; 11, show 12. strow; 13. sup or sop; 14. tug.

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7. Belonging to the seventh conjugation: 1. blow; 2. crow; 3. know; 4. mow; 5. snow; 6. sow; 7. throw.

8. Belonging to the eighth conjugation: 1. fall; 2. fang; 3. fold; 4. hang; 5. hold.

9. Belonging to the mixed conjugation: 1. bring; 2. buy; 3. catch ; 4. fetch; 5. may; 6. pitch; 7. reach; 8. seek; 9. teach; 10. think; 11. work.

10. Monosyllabic verbs in d or t: Rid, shed, spread, bleed, breed, feed, lead, read, speed, burst, cast, cost, cut, hit, hurt, knit, let, put, set, shut, slit, split, spit, thurst, sweat, meet, shoot, light, bend, build, gird, lend, rend, send, spend, wend.

11. Many weakly inflected verbs; as, Say, have, make, etc.

III. TEUTONIC STEM-NOUNS.

§ 311. 1. Stem-adjectives, sometimes from known roots; as, Blank, from to blink; blind, from to blend; wrong, from to wring; and sometimes from unknown roots; as, Much, long, fat.

These adjectives are, for the most part, developed in antithetic pairs; as, Great and small, high and low, thick and thin.

2. Stem-substantives, sometimes from known roots; as, Band, from to bind; cake, from to cook; doom, from to deem; and sometimes from unknown roots; as, Arm, heart, door.

Give some instances of Teutonic stem-nouns,

IV. TEUTONIC REDUPLICATE FORMS.

§ 312. Reduplicate forms; as, Chit-chat, from chat; sing-song, from song; see-saw, from to saw.

1. Bibble-babble, idle talk, senseless prattle, from babble; 2. Chit-chat, idle or familiar talk, from chat; 3. Ding-dong, the repetition of a stroke, the sound of a bell, from ding; 4. Dingle-dangle, a swinging or oscillating motion, from dangle; 5. Fiddle-faddle, trifling, from fiddle; 6. Flim-flam, a freak, a trick, from flam; 7. Gew-gaw, a bawble (comp. Fr. joujou, a plaything); 8. Gibble-gabble, noisy conversation, from gabble; 9. Giffe-gaffe (comp. Anglo-Sax. gifan, to give); 10. Knick-knack, a toy, from knack; 11. Mish-mash, a medley, a heap of things thrown together, from mash; 12. Pit-a-pat, or apitpat, in a flutter, from pat; 13. Prittle-prattle, idle talk, from prattle; 14. Riff-raff, sweepings, refuse, from raff; 15. See-saw, a vibratory motion, from to saw; 16. Shillyshally, irresolution, probably from shall I? 17. Sing-song, bad singing, monotony, from song; 18. Škimble-skamble, wandering, disorderly, from scamble; 19. Slip-slop, bad liquor, from slop; 20. Snip-snap, tart dialogue with quick replies, from snap, to answer quickly; 21. Tick-tack, the noise of a blacksmith's shop, also a game at tables, from tick; 22. Tittle-tattle, empty babble, from tattle; 23. Twittle-twattle, idle talk, from twattle; 24. Whim-wham, a freak, fancy, from whim; 25. Zigzag, with short turns or angles. A few others might be added; as, clickclack, a plaything with which a clacking is made; crincum-crancum, winding round, as a crooked patch; crick-crack, the noise of a thing cracking; dilly-dally, to trifle away time; mingle-mangle, a medley; pintle-pantle, or pintledy-pantledy, in a flutter; shim-sham, foolery.

Besides these examples which have a play of vowels, producing an alliteration, we have another class which have a play of consonants, producing a sort of rhyme; as, Handy-dandy, a play in which children change hands and places; harum-scarum, or karum-starum, flighty; higgledy-piggledy, confusedly; hoddy-doddy, a foolish fellow; hoity-toity, an interjection of surprise; hugger-mugger, secretly; hum-drum, a stupid fellow; hurly-burly, confusion; hurdy-gurdy, a kind of stringed instrument; hurry-skurry, confusedly; namby-pamby, having little affected prettinesses; pell-mell, confusedly; pick-nick, a club in which each one contributes to the entertainment; slang-whanger, a noisy talker of slang (according to Dr. Pickering, a recent Americanism); topsy-turvy, with the bottom upward. It is remarkable how a large proportion of these words begin with h.

So great has been the attachment to these two formations, that they have been sometimes adopted, much to the disfigurement of the original word; as, Criss-cross, for Christ's-cross; helter-skelter for the Latin phrase hilariter et celeriter; hocus-pocus for the Latin sentence hoc est corpus meum; hodge-podge, hotch-potch, for the French compound hochepot; tag-rag for tag and rag; whipper-snapper for whip-snapper.

V. TEUTONIC PRIMARY DERIVATIVES.

§ 313. Primary derivatives are those which are derived immediately from the root or stem. They include,

Give some instances of Teutonic reduplicate forms; and of Teutonic primary derivatives.

1. Derivative verbs in er, le, and en; as, Chatter, a frequentative from to chat; crackle, a diminutive from to crack; harden, a factitive from hard.

2. Derivative adjectives:

(a) in en, from nouns, and forming adjectives expressing the material of which any thing is made; as, golden, earthen, wooden, ashen.

(b) in ern, from nouns, and denoting the point of the compass; as, northern, southern, eastern, western.

(c) in ey, the same as y; as, clayey, wheyey.

(d) in ish, forming diminutives; as, whitish, thievish; also gentile adjectives; as, English, Danish; also more obscured; as, French, Welsh, Dutch. Opposed to ly in womanish, childish.

(e) in ed, the termination of participles; as, winged.

(f) in ful; as, fearful.

(g) in less, denoting loose, free; as, fearless, thankless. (h) in some; as, toilsome, tiresome, wholesome.

(i) in by, originally an adverbial termination; as, goodly, manly. () in ward; as, backward, forward.

(k) in y, from abstract nouns; as, angry, worthy; from concrete nouns ; as, woody, bushy, muddy; or from material nouns; as, airy, fiery, sandy' also any.

3. Derivative adverbs:

(a) in ly (=like), forming adverbs expressing the manner of an action, attached to abstract substantives and to adjectives; as, He gives freely; he speaks wrongly. This is the prevalent use of this suffix in English.

NOTE. This suffix is attached also to concrete substantives, and thus forms adjectives; but such adjectives are used, for the most part, attributively, seldom predicatively; as, a daily publication; manly conduct. (b) in s, forming a sort of adverbial genitive; as, needs, unawares. 4. Derivative concrete substantives:

(a) in er, denoting the personal agent, or active male subject, as opposed to the female; as, lover, hater; also animals; as, ambler, hunter; or the instrumental subject; as, boiler, cleaver; also gunner; also gentile nouns; as, Hamburger, burgher.

(b) in ard; as, drunkard, dullard.

(c) in ine; as, margravine.

(d) in kin; as, lambkin, firkin.

(e) in ling; as, fondling, darling, stripling, suckling, seedling, changeling, duckling.

(f) in ock; as, hillock.

5. Derivative abstract substantives in ing, th, dom, ness, hood, head, ric, ship, ery.

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(a) The suffix ing (Anglo-Saxon ung, German ung), annexed to verbs, denotes the action expressed by the verb; as, In preaching Christ,' "in the preaching of Christ;" but has also taken the place of the present active participle; as, "A man fearing God,"

(b) the suffix th (Dutch te), annexed to adjectives, denotes the quality; as, breadth, depth; drought, height.

(c) The suffix dom (Anglo-Saxon dem, German thum), annexed to adjectives or attributives, denotes (1.) the quality; as, wisdom; (2.) an act; as, cuckoldom; (3.) a state; as, freedom; (4.) a condition; as

birthdom; (5.) appurtenances or possession; as, princedom; and (6.) the collective concrete; as, Christendom.

(d) The suffix ness (Anglo-Saxon nes, nis, nys, German niss), annexed to adjectives, denotes the abstract quality; as, goodness, hardness; and occasionally something possessing the quality; as, fastness.

(e) The suffix hood or head (Anglo-Saxon had, German heit, keit), annexed to adjectives and attributives, denotes (1.) the nature or essence; as, godhead; (2.) the quality; as, hardihood; (3.) the state; as, boyhood; (4.) the condition; as, knighthood; (5.) something possessing the quality; as, falsehood; (6.) the collective concrete; as, sisterhood; and (7.) the means; as, livelihood.

(f) The suffix ric, annexed to attributives, denotes the state or condition; as, bishopric.

(g) The suffix ship or scape (Anglo-Saxon sceaft, scype, scipe, German schaft), annexed to attributives, denotes (1.) the state; as, friendship; (2.) an act; as, courtship; (3.) the condition; as, wardship; (4.) appurtenances or possession; as, lordship; and (5.) the effect; as, workmanship.

(h) The suffix ery denotes the employment; as, brewery, grocery.

VI. TEUTONIC SECONDARY DERIVATIVES.

§ 314. Secondary derivatives are derivatives from other derivatives; as, fearfully, fearfulness, fearlessly, fearlessness, tiredness, learnedly, waywardness, westwardly, tiresomeness.

VII. TEUTONIC WORDS WITH PREFIXES.

§ 315. The formation of words by prefixes is an ancient process in language. It was extensively employed in Gothic and Anglo-Saxon, the ancient languages whence the Teutonic portion of our own tongue is derived. In the English language it has ceased to be an active living principle. Compound verbs of Teutonic origin, in the ordinary cases where the prefix retains its primary local signification, have been disused, and the prefix employed separately after the verb. Thus we now have to give in, to give over, to give out, to give up, as species under the general term to give.

The few cases in which such compound words have been retained in English are the following:

1. Where the force of the prefix is entirely lost; as, Arise, awake. 2. Where the meaning of the prefix is not obvious; as, Answer, begin, forsake, withstand, upbraid.

3. Where the prefix has lost its local meaning, and acquired a metaphorical one; as, Outbid, uphold, overdo.

4. Where the prefix denotes time; as, Outlive, foresee.

5. Where the prefix has an unusual physical meaning; as, Overtake, withstand.

6. Where the retraction of the accent in certain verbal derivatives has preserved the word from being lost; as, Offset, income, outcast.

7. A few other verbs, mostly obsolescent; as, Inbreed, infold, outbud.

Give some instances of Teutonic secondary derivatives; and of Teutonic words with prefixes.