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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MODES.

§ 262. In English, the distinction between the modes, so far as inflection is concerned, is very slight. The only true subjunctive inflection is that of were and wert, as opposed to the indicative forms was and wast. See § 275. If he speak, as opposed to if he speaks, is characterized by a negative sign only, and consequently is no true example of a subjunctive. Be, as opposed to is, in the sentence if it be so, is an uninflected word used in a limited sense, and consequently no true example of a subjunctive. The distinction between the subjunctive forms and the indicative, however desirable it may be to retain it, is likely to pass away.

Between the second person singular imperative, speak, and the second person singular indicative, speakest, there is a difference in form. Still, as the imperative form speak is distinguished from the indicative form speakest by the negation of a character rather than by the assuming of one, it can not be said, on the ground of inflection, that there is in English an imperative mode. The Anglo-Saxon has distinct forms for the imperative; the English has not.

INFLECTION OF THE INFINITIVE.

§ 263. The Inflection of the verb in its impersonal or infinitive form anciently consisted, in full, of three cases: a Nominative (or Accusative), a Dative, and a Genitive. The genitive is put last, because its occurrence in the Gothic language is the least constant.

I. In Anglo-Saxon, the nominative (or accusative) ended in -an :

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to love to burn

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amare.
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Lufian Bærnan The en, in words like strengthen, is a derivational termination, and not a representation of the Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection. The Anglo-Saxon infinitive inflection is lost in the present English, except in certain provincial dialects.

II. In Anglo-Saxon, the dative of the infinitive verb ended in -une, and was (as a matter of Syntax) generally, perhaps always, preceded by the preposition to:

To lufienne

To bærnenne

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With these preliminaries, we can take a clear view of the English infinitives. They exist under two forms, and are referable to a double origin:

1. The Independent form. This is used after the words can, may, will, and some others; as, I can speak; I may go; I shall come; I will move. Here there is no preposition, and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in -an.

2. The Prepositional form. This is used after the majority of English verbs; as, I wish to speak; I mean to go; I intend to come; I determine to move. Here we have the preposition to, and the origin of the infinitive is from the form in -nne. Expressions like to err = error, to forgive forgiveness, in lines like

Mention the characteristics of the modes. What is said of the ancient inflection of the infinitive, and under what two forms do English infinitives exist?

"To err is human; to forgive, divine!"

are very remarkable. They exhibit the phenomena of a nominative case having grown, not only out of a dative, but out of a dative plus its governing preposition.-LATHAM's English Language.

THE NUMBER OF MODES.

§ 264. Not only languages differ as to the number of modes which, by general consent, are attributed to them, but grammarians differ as to the number of modes which should be attributed to the same language. As modes represent the conceptions and affections of the mind, they might be as varied and extended as those affections. There might be the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Potential, the Optative, the Imperative, Infinitive, Vocative, Precative, Interrogative, Causal, Reflective, &c. It is said that the Arabic has thirteen modes, the Russian seven, the Sanscrit six, the Anglo-Saxon four. See § 260.

THE PARTICIPLES.

§ 265. A PARTICIPLE is a verbal adjective, differing from other adjectives by carrying with it the idea of time. It is so called from the Latin particeps, partaking, because it partakes of the nature of the verb and the adjective.

There are two participles; the Present, called, also, the Imperfect or the Active Participle; as, Loving; and the Past, called, also, the Perfect or Passive participle; as, Loved, written. Besides these, there are certain forms called Compound Participles; as, Being loved; having loved; having been loved. The last two forms are often called the COMPOUND PERFECT. In Anglo-Saxon, the participle, like the adjective, was declined; in English, like the adjective, it is not declined.

THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE.

§ 266. The PRESENT PARTICIPLE ends in -ing, and expresses the continuance of an action, state, or being; as, He was loving; they were sleeping.

1. In Anglo-Saxon the forms are -and and -ande; as, Bindand, bindande binding. Like the Latin participle in -ns, it was originally declined. In all the Norse languages, ancient and modern, the -d is preserved. In some of the modern provincial dialects of England, strikand and goand are said for striking and going. In the Scotch of the modern writers we find the form in :

"The rising sun o'er Galston muirs

Wi' glorious light was glintin;

The hares were hirplin down the furs=(furrows)

The lav'rocks they were chantin.”—BURNS.

What is said of the number of modes? What is a participle? How many participles are there? What are they called? What are their forms? What is said of the present participle? What were the Anglo-Saxon forms?

2. This participle often has the nature of an adjective; as, A loving friend. It also becomes an adverb by receiving the termination ly; as, Lovingly; and admits of comparison; as More lovingly, most lovingly.

3. This participle also becomes a noun, and admits the articles; as, "The burning of London in 1666.” "There was a leaning to popery." In this capacity it takes the plural form; as, "The overflowings of the Nile."

THE PAST PARTICIPLE.

§ 267. The PAST PARTICIPLE, called, also, the perfect, or the passive participle, has different terminations, according as it comes from the ancient or strong conjugation, or the modern or weak conjugation. For the meaning of the terms strong and weak, see § 276.

I. The participle in -en; as, Spoken. In the Anglo-Saxon, the participle formed from verbs in the ancient strong conjugation always ended in -en; as, Bunden. In English, this -en is often wanting; as, Bound; the word bounden being antiquated.

1. In all words with a double form, as spake and spoke, brake and broke, the participle follows the form in o; as, Spoken, broken.

2. That of the two forms sang and sung, one will, in the course of long usage, become obsolete, is nearly certain; and as sung is both preterit and participle, it is most likely to be the surviving one.

3. As a general rule, we find the participle in -en wherever the preterit is strong. Still, the two forms do not always coincide. In mow, mowed, mown; sow, sowed, sown, and several other words, we find the participle strong and the preterit weak.

II. The participle in -d, -t, or -ed; as, Loved, left, looked. In AngloSaxon, it differed in form from the preterit, inasmuch as it ended in -ed or -t, whereas the preterit ended in -ode, -de, or -te; as, Lufode, bærnde, dypte, preterits; Gelufod, bærned, dypt, participles.

The perfect participle often loses its verbal character and becomes an adjective; as, A drunken man; a concealed plot. In this character it admits of comparison; as, A more admired artist; a most respected magistrate. A few of these verbal adjectives receive the termination of -ly and become adverbs; as, Pointedly; more conceitedly; most dejectedly.

CONJUGATION.

§ 268. CONJUGATION is the distribution of the several inflections or variations of a verb in their different voices, modes, tenses, numbers, and persons. The conjugation of a verb in the active form is called the Active voice,

What other parts of speech may it become? What is said of the past participle as to termination? Does the perfect participle ever lose its verbal character? What does it become? Give an instance. What is said of conjugation?

and that in the passive form the Passive voice. As English verbs have but few inflections, their conjugation consists chiefly of variation accomplished by means of auxiliary verbs.

AUXILIARY VERBS.

§ 269. AUXILIARY VERBS, or Helping Verbs, perform the same office in the conjugation of principal verbs which inflection does in the classical languages, though even in those languages the substantive verb is sometimes used as a helping verb; as, Amatus eram. They are followed by the other verbs without the prefix to in the infinitive; as, "He may go." "He may go." They were originally principal verbs, and some of them retain that character as well as that of auxiliaries.

CLASSIFICATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS.

§ 270. I. The verbs that are always auxiliary to others are, May, can, shall, must; II. Those that are sometimes auxiliary and sometimes principal verbs are, Will, have, do, be, and let. Let and must have no variation. The power of the verb as an auxiliary is a modification of the original power which it had as a non-auxiliary.

DERIVATION OF AUXILIARY VERBS.

§ 271. I. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of possession: HAVE, Anglo-Saxon habban, to have. It is used both as a principal and as an auxiliary verb. See § 273.

II. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of existence: BE, AM, WAS. A corresponding word is used as an auxiliary in both the Latin and the Greek languages. See § 274.

III. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of future destination, dependent on circumstances external to the agent: SHALL, Anglo-Saxon sceal=necesse est; debeo. In the first person it simply foretells; as, “I shall go to New York to-morrow." In this phrase the word seems to have no reference to obligation; but in its primitive sense it denotes to be obliged, coinciding nearly with ought. When shall is used in the second and third persons, it assumes its primitive sense, or one allied to it, implying obligation; as, when a superior commands with authority, You shall go. Hence shall, in the first person, foretells; in the What is said of auxiliary verbs, and into what two classes are they divided? What is said of the derivation of HAVE? of EE, AM, WAS? of SHALL?

second and third promises, commands, or expresses determination. See § 273.

Should (preterit of shall) expresses duty, supposition; as, "You should pay the money;" "If it should rain to-morrow, I shall not be able to keep my promise." Should is also used to express an opinion doubtfully or modestly; as, "I should think so.'

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IV. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of future destination, dependent on the volition of the agent: WILL, Anglo-Saxon willan. Will, in the first person, not only foretells, but promises; in the second and third, it only foretells. See § 273.

Would (preterit of will) properly implies volition, but, like should, is frequently used as a simple future, dependent on a verb of past time; as, "He said it would rain to-day;" "He promised me that he should go to-morrow,' See § 273.

1. There is the same difference between would and should that there is between will and shall, when used with the past tenses. Would promises or threatens in the first person, and simply foretells in the others. Should simply foretells in the first person, and promises or threatens in the other persons.

2. When the second and third persons are represented as the subjects of their own expressions, shall foretells, as in the first person; as, “He says that he shall be a loser by this bargain;" "Do you suppose you shall go?" Will, in such instances, promises, as in the first person: "You say that you will be present; "He says he will attend to the business."

3. In interrogative sentences, shall and will have, in general, a meaning nearly opposite to what they have in affirmative sentences. Shall, used interrogatively, in the first, second, and third persons, refers to another's will; thus, "Shall I go ?" signifies, Will you permit me to go? Will, used interrogatively, in the second and third persons, denotes volition or determination in the subject; as, "Will you go?"

4. When the verb is in the subjunctive mode, the meaning of shall and will undergoes some alteration; thus, "He shall proceed" expresses a command, but "If he shall proceed" expresses a mere future contingency.

"He

V. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of power, dependent upon circumstances external to the agent: MAY, Anglo-Saxon magan. may purchase the field if he pleases;" "He might (preterit) purchase the field if he pleased." May, when it stands before its subject, expresses a wish: May he come; might it but turn out well. See § 273.

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VI. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of power, dependent on circumstances internal to the agent: CAN, Anglo-Saxon cunnan=to know how to do. May is simply permissive, can is potential. 'May et can cum eorum preteritis might et could potentiam innuunt; cum hoc discrimine: May et might vel de jure vel saltem de rei possibilitate dicuntur, at can et could de viribus agentis."-WALLIS, p. 107.

VII. Auxiliary verb, derived from the idea of necessity: MUST, Anglo-Saxon mót ought, or necesse est.

"For as the fisse, if it be dry,

Mote, in defaute of water, die."-GOWER.

MUST, and likewise MAY and CAN (as well as CAN NOT), are each used What is said of the derivation of WILL? of MAY? of CAN? of MUST?

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