MASPERO

Stone Arches-Stone arches are very frequently used both in stone |
and brick buildings. (For general definitions and terms see BRICK-
WORK.) They may be built in a great variety of styles, either flat,
segmental, circular, elliptical or pointed. Each block or voussoir
should be cut to fit exactly in its appointed place, the joints being
made as fine as possible. The joints should radiate from the centre
from which the soffit or intrados is struck, or in the case of an ellip
tical arch they should be at right angles to a tangent drawn to the
intrados at that point. The extrados or back of the arch is usually
concentric with the intrados, but is sometimes made thicker in one
portion than in another; thus the arch may be deeper at the crown
than at the sides, or at the sides than in the centre. In some cases
two or more voussoirs are of one stone, having a false joint cut in
the centre; this is economical, and in some cases adds to the stability
of the arch. Generally the arch is divided into an uneven number
of voussoirs so as to give a keystone, the voussoirs being laid from
each side of the keystone and fitting exactly in the centre of the arch.
The keystone is not a necessity, arches being frequently formed with
an even number of voussoirs, some architects hold that the danger
of the voussoirs cracking is thereby lessened. Where lintels are used
in a stone wall over openings of small span it is usual to build a
relieving arch above to take the superincumbent weight of masonry:
or the same purpose may be effected in walls of ashlar by a flat
relieving or save" arch, formed in the next course of three stones
above the lintel, the tapering keystone resting between the two side
stones which are tailed well into the wall.

In very many cases it is desired to form square heads to openings
of greater span than it is convenient to obtain lintels for in one piece,
and some form of flat arch must therefore be adopted. The vous-
soirs are connected by joggles worked on their joints, as in fig. 17.
The weight of the superimposed wall is taken by a lintel with
relieving arch above at the back of the arch.
Arches built to an elliptical form when used for large spans (if
of flat curve they should bridge over 8 ft. or 10 ft.) are liable if
heavily loaded to fail by the voussoirs at the centre being forced
down, or else to burst up at the haunches. With arches of this
description there is a large amount of outward thrust, and abut-
ments of ample strength must be placed to receive the springers.
Stone Tracery.-The designs of Gothic and other tracery stonework
are almost infinite, and there are many methods, ingenious and
otherwise, of setting out such work. Nearly all diagrams of con-
struction are planned on the principle of geometrical intersections.
In the example illustrated in fig. 18 the method of setting out and
finishing the design is very clearly shown, together with the best
positions for the joints of the various parts. The jointing is a
matter which must be carefully considered in order to avoid any
waste of stone and labour. It will be observed that the right-hand
side of the elevation shows the method of setting out the tracery
by the centre lines of the various intersecting branches, the other
half giving the completed design with the cusping drawn in and the
positions of joints. All the upper construction of windows and
doors and of aisle arches should be protected from superincumbent
pressure by strong relieving arches above the labels, as shown in
the figure, which should be worked with the ordinary masonry, and
work, which would be liable to flush or otherwise destroy the joints
so set that the weight above should avoid pressure on the fair
of the tracery.
Carving.-Stone carving is a craft quite apart from the work of the
ordinary stonemason, and like carving in wood needs an artistic
feeling and special training. Carving-stone should be of fine grain
and sufficiently soft to admit of easy working. The Bath stones in
England and the Caen stone of France are largely used for internal
work, but if for the exterior they should be treated with some
chemical preservative. Carving is frequently done after the stone
is built into position, the face being left rough-" boasted" and
projecting sufficiently for the intended design.

See E. Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française; W. R. Purchase, Practical Masonry, J. O Baker, A Treatise on Masonry Construction; C. F. Mitchell, Brickwork and Masonry; W. Diack, The Art of Masonry in Britain. MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES (1846(J. BT.) French Egyptologist, was born in Paris on the 23rd of June 1846, his parents being of Lombard origin. While at school he ), showed a special taste for history, and when fourteen years old was already interested in hieroglyphic writing. It was not until his second year at the Ecole Normale in 1867 that Maspero met with an Egyptologist in the person of Mariette, who was then in Paris as commissioner for the Egyptian section of the exhibition. Mariette gave him two newly discovered hieroglyphic texts of considerable difficulty to study, and, self-taught, the young scholar produced translations of them in less than a fortnight, a great feat in those days when Egyptology was still almost in its infancy. The publication of these in the same year established his reputation. A short time was spent in assisting a gentleman in Peru, who was

MASS

seeking to prove an Aryan affinity for the dialects spoken by the Indians of that country, to publish his researches; but in 1868 Maspero was back in France at more profitable work. In 1869 he became a teacher (répétiteur) of Egyptian language and archaeology at the Ecole des Hautes Études, in 1874 he was appointed to the chair of Champollion at the Collège de France.get

of an archaeological mission despatched thither by the French
In November 1880 Professor Maspero went to Egypt as head
government, which ultimately developed into the well-equipped
Institut Français de l'Archéologie Oriental. This was but a
few months before the death of Mariette, whom Maspero then
succeeded as director-general of excavations and of the antiquities
of Egypt. He held this post till June 1886; in these five years
he had organized the mission, and his labours for the Bulak
discovery of the great cache of royal mummies at Deir el-Bahri
in July 1881. Maspero now resumed his professorial duties in
Paris until 1899, when he returned to Egypt in his old capacity
museum and for archaeology had been carly rewarded by the
as director-general of the department of antiquities. He found
he superintended their removal from Gizeh to the new quarters
at Kasr en-Nil in 1902. The vast catalogue of the collections
the collections in the Cairo Museum enormously increased, and
made rapid progress under Maspero's direction. Twenty-four
volumes or sections were already published in 1909.
and clearances at the temple of Karnak, begun in his previous
tenure of office, led to the most remarkable discoveries in later
years (see KARNAK), during which a vast amount of excavation
The repairs
and exploration has been carried on also by unofficial but
authorized explorers of many nationalities.

lated into English by Mrs McClure for the S.P.C.K.), displaying
Among his best-known publications are the large Histoire ancienne
des peuples de l'Orient classique (3 vols., Paris, 1895-1897, trans-
Orient, 1 vol., of the same scope, which has passed through six
the history of the whole of the nearer East from the beginnings to
égyptiennes (Paris, 1893, &c.), a collection of reviews and essays
the conquest by Alexander, a smaller Histoire des peuples de
originally published in various journals, and especially important
editions from 1875 to 1904; Etudes de mythologie et d'archéologie
égyptienne (latest ed., 1907), of which several editions have been
published in English. He also established the journal Recueil de
as contributions to the study of Egyptian religion; L'Archéologie
travaux relatifs à la philologie et à l'archéologie égyptiennes et
assyriennes; the Bibliothèque égyptologique, in which the scattered
essays of the French Egyptologists are collected, with biographies,
&c.; and the Annales du service des antiquités de l'Egypte, a reposi-
tory for reports on official excavations, &c,

(Paris, 1894); Les Momies royales de Deir el-Bahart (Paris, 1889):
Les Contes populaires de l'Egypte ancienne (3rd ed., Paris, 1906):
Maspero also wrote: Les Inscriptions des pyramides de Saggarah
Causeries d'Egypte (1907), translated by Elizabeth Lee as New Light
on Ancient Egypt (1908).

eccl. Lat. missa), a name for the Christian eucharistic service,
practically confined since the Reformation to that of the Roman
MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from
Catholic Church. The various orders for the celebration of Mass
order is given under MISSAL; and the general development of the
eucharistic service, including the Mass, is described in the article
are dealt with under LITURGY, a detailed account of the Roman
EUCHARIST. The present article is confined (1) to the considera-
troversy, (2) to the Mass in music.
tion of certain special meanings which have become attached
to the word Mass and are the subject of somewhat acute con-

The origin of the word missa, as applied to the Eucharist, is
obscure. The first to discuss the matter is Isidore of Seville
(Etym. vi. 19), who mentions an "evening office" (officium
vespertinum), a "morning office" (officium matutinum), and an
office called missa. Of the latter he says: "Missa tempore
sacrificii est, quando catechumeni foras mittuntur, clamante
levita si quis catechumenus remansit, exeat foras." Et inde
missa,' quia sacramentis altaris interesse non possunt, qui non-
dum regenerati sunt " ("The missa is at the time of the sacrifice,
when the catechumens are sent out, the deacon crying, 'If any
catechumen remain, let him go forth.'" Hence missa, because
those who are as yet unregenerate-i.e. unbaptized-may not
be present at the sacraments of the altar). This derivation of

the word Mass, which would connect it with the special formula of dismissal still preserved in the Roman liturgy--Ite, missa estonce generally accepted, is now disputed. It is pointed out that the word missa long continued to be applied to any church service, and more particularly to the lections (see Du Cange for numerous examples), and it is held that such services received their name of missal from the solemn form of dismissal with which it was customary to conclude them; thus, in the 4th century Pilgrimage of Etheria (Silvia) the word missa is used indiscriminately of the Eucharist, other services, and the ceremony of dismissal. F. Kattenbusch (Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklop. S. "Messe") ingeniously, but with little evidence, suggests that the word may have had a double origin and meaning: (1) in the sense of dimissio, "dismissal", (2) in that of commissio, "commission," "official duty," .e. the exact Latin equivalent of the Greek XeToupyia (see LITURGY), and hence the conflicting use of the term. It is, however, far more probable that it was a general term that gradually became crystallized as applying to that service in which the dismissal represented a more solemn function. In the narrower sense of Mass" it is first found in St Ambrose (Ep. 20, 4, ed. Ballerini): “Missam facere coepi. Dum offero... " which evidently identifies the missa with the sacrifice. It continued, however, to be used loosely, though its tendency to become proper only to the principal Christian service is clear from a passage in the 12th homily of Caesarius, bishop of Arles (d. 542): "If you will diligently attend, you will recognize that missae are not celebrated when the divine readings are recited in the church, but when gifts are offered and the Body and Blood of the Lord are consecrated." The complete service (missa ad integrum), the bishop goes on to say, cannot be had at home by reading and prayer, but only in the house of God, where, besides the Eucharist," the divine word is preached and the blessing is given to the people."

entirely out of use except in the sense in which it is defined in
Johnson's Dictionary, i.e. that of the "Service of the Romish
Church at the celebration of the Eucharist." In connexion with
the Catholic reaction in the Church of England, which had its
origin in the "Oxford Movement" of the 19th century, efforts
have been made by some of the clergy to reintroduce the term
"Mass" for the Holy Communion in the English Church.
See Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. "Missa "; F. Kattenbusch in
Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadre (ed. 1903), s.v. "Messe, dogmen-
geschichtlich", for the facts as to the use of the word "Mass" at
the time of the Reformation see the article by J. H. Round in the
Nineteenth Century for May 1897.
(W. A. P.)

MASS, IN MUSIC: 1. Polyphonic Masses.-The composition of musical settings of the Mass plays a part in the history of music which is of special importance up to and including the 16th century. As an art-form the musical Mass is governed to a peculiar degree by the structure of its text. It so happens that the supremely important parts of the Mass are those which have the smallest number of words, namely the Kyrie, important as being the opening prayer; the Sanctus and Benedictus, embodying the central acts and ideas of the service; and the Agnus Dei, the prayer with which it concludes. The 16th-century methods were specially fitted for highly developed music when words were few and embodied ideas of such important emotional significance or finality that they could be constantly repeated without losing force. Now the texts of the Gloria and Credo were more voluminous than any others which 16th-century composers attempted to handle in a continuous scheme. The practical limits of the church service made it impossible to break them up by setting each clause to a separate movement, a method by which 16th-century music composers contrived to set psalms and other long texts to compositions lasting an hour or longer. Accordingly, Palestrina and his great contemporaries and predecessors treated the Gloria and Credo in a style midway in polyphonic organization and rhythmic breadth between that of the elaborate motet (adopted in the Sanctus) and the homophonic reciting style of the Litany. The various ways in which this special style could be modified by the scale of the work, and contrasted with the broader and more elaborate parts, gave the Mass (even in its merely technical aspects) a range which made it to the 16th-century composer what the symphony is to the great instrumental classics. Moreover, as being inseparably associated with the highest act of worship, it inspired composers in direct proportion to their piety and depth of mind. Of course there were many false methods of attacking the art-problem, and many other relationships, true and false, between the complexity of the settings of the various parts of the Mass and of motets. The story of the

church music is told elsewhere (see Music and PALESTRINA); and it has been recently paralleled by a decree of Pope Pius X., which has restored the 16th-century polyphonic Mass to a permanent place in the Roman Catholic Church music.

Whatever its origin, the word Mass had by the time of the Reformation been long applied only to the Eucharist; and, though in itself a perfectly colourless term, and used as such during the earlier stages of the 16th century controversies concerning the Eucharist, it soon became identified with that sacrificial aspect of the sacrament of the altar which it was the chief object of the Reformers to overthrow. In England, so late as the first Prayer-book of Edward VI., it remained one of the official designations of the Eucharist, which is there described as "The Supper of the Lorde and holy Communion, commonly called the Masse." This, however, like the service itself, represented a compromise which the more extreme reformers would not tolerate, and in the second Prayer-book, together with such language in the canon as might imply the doctrine of transub-action of the council of Trent on the subject of corruption of stantiation and of the sacrifice, the word Mass also disappears. That this abolition of the word Mass, as implying the offering of Christ's Body and Blood by the priest for the living and the dead was deliberate is clear from the language of those who were chiefly responsible for the change. Bishops Ridley and Latimer, the two most conspicuous champions of "the new religion," denounced "the Mass" with unmeasured violence; Latimer said of "Mistress Missa " that the devil hath brought her in again "; Ridley said: "I do not take the Mass as it is at this day for the communion of the Church, but for a popish device," &c. (Works, ed. Parker Soc., pp. 121, 120), and again: "In the stead of the Lord's holy table they give the people, with much solemn disguising, a thing which they call their mass; but in deed and in truth it is a very masking and mockery of the true Supper of the Lord, or rather I may call it a crafty juggling, whereby these false thieves and jugglers have bewitched the minds of the simple people... unto pernicious idolatory" (ib. p. 409). This language is reflected in the 31st of the Articles of Religion of the Church of England: "Wherefore the sacrifices of Masses, in which it was commonly said that the Priest did offer Christ for the quick and the dead, to have remission of pain and guilt, were blasphemous fables and dangerous deceits." Clearly the word Mass had ceased to be a colourless term generally applicable to the eucharistic service; it was, in fact, not only proscribed officially, but in the common language of English people it passed

XVII. 14.

66

2. Instrumental Masses in the Neapolitan Form.-The next definite stage in the musical history of the Mass was attained by the Neapolitan composers who were first to reach musical coherence after the monodic revolution at the beginning of the 17th century. The fruit of their efforts came to maturity in the Masses of Mozart and Haydn. By this time the resources of music were such that the long and varied text of the Gloria and Credo inevitably either overbalanced the scheme or met with an obviously perfunctory treatment. It is almost impossible, without asceticism of a radically inartistic kind, to treat with the resources of instrumental music and free harmony such passages as that from the Crucifixus to the Resurrexit, without an emotional contrast which inevitably throws any natural treatment of the Sanctus into the background, and makes the Agnus Dei an inadequate conclusion to the musical scheme. So unfavourable were the conditions of 18th-century music for the formation of a good ecclesiastical style that only a very small proportion of Mozart's and Haydn's Mass music may be said to represent their ideas of religious music at all. The best features of their Masses are those that combine faithfulness to the Neapolitan forms with a contrapuntal richness such as no Neapo

litan composer ever achieved. Thus Mozart's most perfect as well as most ecclesiastical example is his extremely terse Mass in F, written at the age of seventeen, which is scored simply for fourpart chorus and solo voices accompanied by the organ with a largely independent bass and by two violins mostly in independent real parts. This scheme, with the addition of a pair of trumpets and drums and, occasionally, oboes, forms the normal orchestra of 18th-century Masses developed or degenerated from this model. Trombones often played with the three lower voices, a practice of high antiquity surviving from a time when there were soprano trombones or cornelli (Zincken, a sort of treble serpent) to play with the sopranos.

3. Symphonic Masses.-The enormous dramatic development in the symphonic music of Beethoven made the problem of the Mass with orchestral accompaniment almost insoluble. This makes it all the more remarkable that Beethoven's second and only important Mass (in D, Op. 123) is not only the most dramatic ever penned but is, perhaps, the last classical Mass that is thoughtfully based upon the liturgy, and is not a mere musical setting of what happens to be a liturgic text. It was intended for the installation of Beethoven's friend, the archduke Rudolph, as archbishop of Olmütz; and, though not ready until two years after that occasion, it shows the most careful consideration of the meaning of a church service, no doubt of altogether exceptional length and pomp, but by no means impossible for its unique occasion. Immense as was Beethoven's dramatic force, it was equalled by his power of sublime repose; and he was accordingly able once more to put the supreme moment of the music where the service requires it to be, viz. in the Sanctus and Benedictus. In the Agnus Dei the circumstances of the time gave him something special to say which has never so imperatively demanded utterance since. Europe had been shattered by the Napoleonic wars. Beethoven read the final prayer of the Mass as a "" prayer for inward and outward peace," and, giving it that title, organized it on the basis of a contrast between terrible martial sounds and the triumph of peaceful themes, in a scheme none the less spiritual and sublime because those who first heard it had derived their notions of the horror of war from living in Vienna during its bombardment. Critics who have lived in London during the relief of Mafeking have blamed Beethoven for his realism.

Schubert's Masses show rather the influence of Beethoven's not very impressive first Mass, which they easily surpass in interest, though they rather pathetically show an ignorance of the meaning of the Latin words. The last two Masses are later than Beethoven's Mass in D and contain many remarkable passages. It is evident from them that a dramatic treatment of the Agnus Dei was "in the air"; all the more so, since Schubert does not imitate Beethoven's realism.

4. Lutkeran Masses.-Music with Latin words is not excluded from the Lutheran Church, and the Kyrie and Gloria are frequently sung in succession and entitled a Mass. Thus the Four Short Masses of Bach are called short, not because they are on a small scale, which is far from being the case, but because they consist only of the Kyrie and Gloria. Bach's method is to treat each clause of his text as a separate movement, alternating choruses with groups of arias; a method which was independently adopted by Mozart in those larger masses in which he transcends the Neapolitan type, such as the great unfinished Mass in C minor. This method, in the case of an entire Mass, results in a length far too great for a Roman Catholic service; and Bach's B minor Mass, which is such a setting of the entire test, must be regarded as a kind of oratorio. It thus has obviously nothing| to do with the Roman liturgy; but as an independent setting of the text it is one of the most sublime and profoundly religious works in all art; and its singular perfection as a design is nowhere more evident than in its numerous adaptations of earlier works.

The most interesting of all these adaptations is the setting of the words: "Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum et vitam venturi saeculi.-AMEN." Obviously the greatest difficulty in any elaborate instrumental setting of the Credo is the inevitable

anti-climax after the Resurrexit. Bach contrives to give this anti-climax a definite artistic value; all the more from the fact that his Crucifixus and Resurrexit, and the contrast between them, are among the most sublime and directly impressive things in all music. To the end of his Resurrexit chorus he appends an orchestral ritornello, summing up the material of the chorus in the most formal possible way, and thereby utterly destroying all sense of finality as a member of a large group, while at the same time not in the least impairing the force and contrast of the whole-that contrast having ineffaceably asserted itself at the moment when it occurred. After this the aria "Et in enshrined like relics in a casket, furnishes a beautiful decorative spiritum sanctum," in which the next dogmatic clauses are design on which the listener can repose his mind, and then comes the voluminous ecclesiastical fugue, Confiteor unum baptismo, leading, as through the door and world-wide spaces of the Cathofaith. At the words "Et expecto resurrectionem mortuorum lic Church, to that veil which is not all darkness to the the music plunges suddenly into a slow series of some of the most sublime and mysterious modulations ever written, until it breaks eye of out as suddenly into a vivace e allegro of broad but terse design, which comes to its climax very rapidly and ends as abruptly as possible, the last chord being carefully written as a short note without a pause. This gives the utmost possible effect of finality to the whole Credo, and contrasts admirably with the coldly formal instrumental end of the Resurrexit three movements conscious on the part of the composer; yet here Bach is so far further back. Now, such subtleties seem as if they must be unaware of his reasons that his vivace e allegro is an arrangement der Stille; and in the cantata the chorus has introductory and of the second chorus of a church cantata, Gott man lobet dich in final symphonies and a middle section with a da capol

has a far less definite musical history than the ordinary Mass; 5. The Requiem.-The Missa pro defunctis or Requiem Mass and such special musical forms as it has produced have little in tively demands either a very dramatic elaboration or none at all, that even in the 16th century it could not possibly be set to common with each other. The text of the Dies Irae so imperacontinuous music on the lines of the Gloria and Credo. Fortunately, however, the Gregorian canto fermo associated with it is masters either, like Palestrina, left it to be sung as plain-chant, of exceptional beauty and symmetry; and the great 16th century versicles (like their settings of the Magnificat and other canticles) or obviated all occasion for dramatic expression by setting it in for two groups of voices alternatively, or for the choir in alternation with the plain chant of the priests.

With modern orchestral conditions the text seems positively
to demand an unecclesiastical, not to say sensational, style, and
said to be great church music are the sublime unfinished work of
probably the only instrumental Requiem Masses which can be
Mozart (the antecedents of which would be a very interesting
subject) and the two beautiful works by Cherubini. These latter,
however, tend to be funereal rather than uplifting. The only other
artistic solution of the problem is to follow Berlioz, Verdi and
Dvořák in the complete renunciation of all ecclesiastical style.
for the dead, being simply a large choral work on a text compiled
Brahms's Deutsches requiem has nothing to do with the Mass
from the Bible by the composer.
Carrara of the province of Massa and Carrara, and sharing with
it the episcopal see, 20 m. S.E. of Spezia by rail, 246 ft. above
MASSA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, the joint capital with
(D. F. T.)
sea-level. Pop. (1901), 10,559 (town); 26,118 (commune).
The Palazzo Ducale (now the prefecture) was erected in 170r, and
was a summer residence of Napoleon's sister, Elisa Baciocchi,
princess of Lucca, who caused the ancient cathedral opposite to
be destroyed. The hills round the town yield marble, and there
is a narrow-gauge railway to the Marina d'Avenza, where the
marble is shipped.

tribe of Indians), one of the original thirteen states of the
MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a
American Union, bounded on the N. by Vermont and New
Hampshire, on the E. by the Atlantic, on the S. by Rhode Island