bers of society. It will attempt to make an environment very unfavorable for the development either of millionaires or of paupers.-Sidney Low, Fortnightly Rev., September, 1909. E. S. B.

The World of Life as Visualized and Interpreted by Darwinism.-In visualizing the world of life, we see (1) its persistence in everchanging but unchecked development throughout geologic time; (2) no evolution of new species since the glacial age; (3) the exact adaptation of every species to its actual environment; (4) the exquisite forms of beauty in flower and fruit, in mammal and the countless insect-tribes, and (5) that all the forces of life have been brought into existence in strict relation to that great law of usefulness which constitutes the fundamental principle of Darwinism.-A. R. Wallace, Pop. Sci. Month., November, 1909. E. S. B.

Sociology the Basis of Inquiry into Primitive Culture. It is man in social contact with his fellows who has progressed from savagery to civilization; not man individually. The key to all that we can learn about man is the social structure. Human sacrifice, for example, is a custom prevalent among peoples whose social structure is a complex one having two constituent parts, a conquering people and a conquered people; and in no other condition do we find human sacrifice. One culture status takes its victims for the sacrifice from its conquered enemies; the next higher culture status comes to take its victims from its own members. By applying this method, we have much to learn about primitive culture. Laurence Gomme, Sociol. Rev., October, 1909.

E. S. B. The Mores of the Present and the Future.-Folk-ways are ways of doing things, with little or no moral content; mores are those customs morally judged favorable to welfare. Three leading features of our present mores are: monogamy, anti-slavery, and democracy. Love of luxury, excitement, and amusement has been spread by popular literature to classes of people who never felt it formerly, and that hunger has entered into the present mores. The mores are changing rights, justice, liberty, equality are watchwords now instead of church, faith, heaven, hell. In a few generations, the human race will find itself facing overpopulation and harder conditions; and notions about property, marriage, inheritance will change to suit the struggle for existence.-W. G. Sumner, Yale Rev., November, 1909. E. S. B.

Crime and Punishment.-Two serious gaps stand in the way of any symmetry in our mode of dealing with the criminal: first, the hiatus between the judge who sentences and the prison authority who sees that the sentence is executed; second, the superintendents of prisons, whether medical or not, are usually innocent of such knowledge as is necessary in dealing with the mental and moral reform of prisoners. Scores of convicts in our prisons are mentally unsound, morally defective, and unamenable to prison discipline. Individual discrimination is needed, seeking to restore will-power and to direct it aright where there still remains even feeble volition. Among those in whom motive to a crimeless life is inoperative, clearly the asylum managed with care is more appropriate than the prison.-W. J. Collins, Hibbert Journ., October, 1909.

E. S. B.

Extent of Unemployment in the United States.-The average miner works from year to year but two-thirds of the working days; in other industries, the average unemployment is one-fifth of the time. Unemployment varies with the years, the seasons, the various trades and occupations, but in general, among the average group of workers earning less than $750 a year, the probability in a normal year is an unemployment of sixty days. Under our present system of industry, unemployment is a constant factor in the life of the average wageworker; it is due, (1) to industrial uncertainty, and (2) to personal incapacity. Scott Nearing, Amer. Statist. Assoc., September, 1909. E. S. B.

Le travail à domicile dans l'industrie de la lingerie en province. -The Office of Labor pursued an investigation, commencing in 1905, of the work at home

in the linen industry. The results reveal an unsatisfactory condition of affairs. Tariff in foreign countries is so high that it is almost restrictive. Entrepreneurs are too numerous and competition for the business is so strong that prices are brought exceedingly low. The result is that wages for the workers are so low that a subsistence can hardly be secured even when the day is prolonged to twelve to seventeen hours. The work is very fatiguing to the whole body, and especially the eyes, consequently many workers have serious eye troubles. In this industry at present there is only poverty for the entrepreneurs and misery for the workers.-Paul Pourchet, Rev. de l'action pop., October, 1909.

R. B. McC.

Féminisme et science positive.-The movement for woman suffrage has made woman an object of study from the biological, sociological, and juridical points of view. The questions are: Does woman present in her physical organism characteristics inferior and opposite to those of man? Are these the inevitable result of biological-sexual conditions or a consequence of social restraints? Should these hinder the participation of woman in civil life? Bischoff affirmed the mental inferiority of woman on account of the inferior weight of her brain, but unfortunately at his death the weight of his brain was found less than that of the average woman's brain. Some have observed fewer convolutions in the brain of woman. But comparative anatomy shows that the beaver, a very intelligent animal, has a brain entirely smooth, while the sheep, a very stupid animal, has a brain rich in convolutions. Broca, who studies carefully the relation between the brain and intelligence, declares the intellectual inferiority of woman to be due entirely to her education. It is society, with its restrictions, conventions, hypocrisies and prejudices, which limits the activity of woman, arresting her spiritual faculties and physical energies. The two great allies for woman's enthraldom are militarism and sacerdotalism. The former exalts brute strength and considers the fettering of woman a natural phenomenon. The latter has given divine sanction to the prejudice of woman's inferiority. Luther caused a reaction. Modern industrialism, because it must have woman, is doing more for her than has anything else, and this marks a gigantic step in the history of civilization.-Francesco Cosentini, Revue internationale de sociologie, October, 1909. R. B. McC.

L'anthropologie criminelle.-Criminal anthropology, observing everything connected with the criminal finds the most important factor in the production of criminality, the physical and psychical constitution to which the equally abnormal and criminal functioning corresponds. Such a structure is the result of degeneracy, arrested development due to epilepsy, alcoholism, syphilis, etc. Upon it different factors act increasing or ameliorating it. Measures for prevention of crime are bettering of economic conditions, speedier judicial procedure, an active fight against alcoholism, houses of correction for the young, and industrial schools; for the repression of crime, a penal system based on the idea of protection of society rather than punishment and consequently a strict classification of criminals after examination.-M. Carrara, Arch, d'anthrop. crim. etc., October-November, 1909. F. F.

L'adaptation.-Adaptation is at once the goal and the result of all human efforts in the social movement and it is characterized by two traits, continuity and reciprocity. Adaptation in the individual takes three forms: in the child, by means of education, it repeats the past; in the adult, through professional life, it organizes the present; in certain of the "élite," through reflection, it prepares the future. The process is one (1) of immediate reaction to external changes, (2) of acquired habit, which (3) in turn becomes hereditary. The degree in which an individual adapts himself can be judged only by taking account of the two general facts of continuity and reciprocity in his adaptation. Group adaptation differs from individual adaptation and the phenomena of growth are closely connected with adaptation.-René Worms, Rev. internat. d. sociologie, November, 1909. F. F.

Mohammedanism, Romanism, and Protestantism contain systems of world-philosophy which have been deduced from religious dogmas. The world-philosophy is in each case removed by several steps of deduction from the religious postulates. In each case customs have grown up from the unavoidable compromise between metaphysical dogmas and interests, and these customs, so far as they inhere in essential traits of human nature, or in fundamental conditions of human life, or as far as they have taken on the sanctity of wide and ancient authority so that they seem to be above discussion, are the mores. Does a Roman Catholic, or a Mohammedan, or a Protestant child begin by learning the dogmas of his religion and then build a life-code on them? Not at all. He begins by living in, and according to, the mores of his family and societal environment. The vast mass of men in each case never do anything else but thus imbibe a character from the environment. If they learn the religious dogmas at all, it is superficially, negligently, erroneously. They are trained in the ritual, habituated to the usages, imbued with the notions, of the societal environment. They hear and repeat the proverbs, sayings, and maxims which are current in it. They perceive what 1 Address of the President of the American Sociological Society at its fourth annual meeting in New York, December, 1909.

is admired, ridiculed, abominated, desired by the people about them. They learn the code of conduct-what is considered stupid, smart, stylish, clever, or foolish, and they form themselves on these ideas. They get their standards from the standards of their environment. Behind this, but far behind it for all but the scholars, are the history and logic by which the mores are connected with the religious facts or dogmas, and when the scholars investigate the history and logic they find that the supposed history is a tissue of myths and legends and that the logic is like a thread broken at a hundred points, twisted into innumerable windings, and snarled into innumerable knots.

But now it follows that the mores are affected all the time by changes in environmental conditions and societal growth, and by changes in the arts, and they follow these influences without regard to religious institutions or doctrines, or, at most, compromises are continually made between inherited institutions and notions on one side and interests on the other. The religion has to follow the mores. In its nature, no religion ever changes. Every religion is absolute and eternal truth. It never contains any provision for its own amendment or "evolution,' It would stultify itself if it should say: I am temporarily or contingently true, and I shall give way to something truer. I am a working hypothesis only. I am a constitution which may be amended whenever you please. "The faith once delivered to the saints" must claim to be perfect, and the formula itself means that the faith is changeless. A scientific or developing religion is an absurdity. But then again nothing is absolutely and eternally true. Everything must change. Religion is no exception. Therefore every religion is a resisting inertia which is being overcome by moving forces. Interests are the forces, because they respond, in men, to hunger, love, vanity, and fear, and the actual mores of a time are the resultant of the force of interests and the inertia of religion. The leaders of a period enlist on the side either of the interests or the resistance, and the mass of men float on the resultant current of the mores.

Religion is tradition. It is a product of history, and it is

embodied in ritual, institutions, officials, etc., which are historical. From time to time it is observed that the religious generalizations do not hold true; experience does not verify them. At last skepticism arises and new efforts of philosophy are required to re-establish the religious dogmas or to make new compromises. Philosophy appears as a force of revision and revolution. In the New Testament we see a new philosophy undermining and overthrowing rabbinical Judaism. This operation may be found in the history of any religion. It is often repeated. The institutional and traditional religion stands like an inherited and established product; the philosophy appears like a new and destructive element which claims to be reformatory, and may turn out to be such, but which begins by destruction.

We may see one of these operations in the ecclesiastical schism of the sixteenth century. The mediaeval system broke down in the fifteenth century. It was not able to support the weight thrown on it by the great changes of that period. New devices were charged with the great societal duties. For instance, the state was created and charged with duties which the church had claimed to perform. The state thus got control of marriage, divorce, legitimacy, property, education, etc. These things were in the mores, and the mores changed. The masses accepted the changes and readjusted their ideas accordingly. They turned to the state instead of the church for the defense and control of great interests, the schism in the church was a result. Those who still kept faith in sacramental religion have clung to institutions, ritual, dogmas, etc., which are consistent with sacramental religion; those who rejected sacramental dogmas have made new usages and institutions to fit their religious needs and experience. The latter school have made new deductions and inferences from the great principles of their creed and faith. The deductions thus made, when turned into injunctions or inhibitions, impose certain duties which are imperative and arbitrary. For instance, we are told that we must do a thing because the Bible says so, not because there is any rational relation between that act and self-realiza