thousand men under the command of Pierre de Brézé, and with these she made a descent upon Northumberland and took Bamborough and some other castles, which, however, were soon after besieged by King Edward's forces, and after a while recovered. King Edward himself, on hearing of her landing, hastened into the north, on which Margaret took ship to sail for France, but meeting with a storm was driven to land at Berwick and lost all her treasure. On the total failure of this expedition the well-known story is told by a French writer of her wandering with her son in a forest where she was attacked by robbers, and appealing successfully to the loyalty of one of them to save the son of his king.

Soon after, in April 1463,1 she sailed to Flanders and sought the aid of Philip of Burgundy, but he declined to do more than relieve her poverty, and she retired to a castle in Lorraine, which her father gave her to occupy. Here Sir John Fortescue, who accompanied her into exile, superintended the education of her son, and composed for his benefit his celebrated treatise on the laws of England. Here also she apparently remained while her husband made further efforts and met with further defeats,-while he lay concealed, for more than a year, in Lancashire, was taken prisoner, and committed to the Tower. But in 1470, when her old enemy the earl of Warwick, having rebelled against King Edward, sought a refuge in France, Louis XI. induced her, though with great difficulty, to pardon him and concert measures along with him for her husband's restoration to the throne. The negotiation was cemented by an agreement for the marriage of her son, the prince of Wales, to the earl's daughter after the kingdom should be recovered, and so successful was the project that Edward was actually driven into exile, and for a period of six months Henry was again acknowledged as king. But the return of King Edward and the battle of Barnet once more changed the aspect of affairs before Margaret was able to rejoin her husband, and when she at length landed again in England she was defeated and taken prisoner at Tewkesbury. To add to her misery her only son Prince Edward was butchered after the battle. Four years later, in 1475, on peace being made between England and France, she was ransomed by Louis XI., and returned to her native country. She died at Dampierre near Saumur in Anjou, on the 25th of August 1482.

Principal Authorities.-Bourdigné, Chroniques d'Anjou et du Maine; Villeneuve Bargemont, Histoire de René d'Anjou; William Wyrcestre, Annals, edited by Hearne (with Liber Niger Scaccarii); Fragment relating to Edward IV., ed. Hearne (with Sprott's Chronicle); English Chronicle, ed. Davies (Camden Society); Paston Letters; Rolls of Parliament; Anchiennes Chronicques d'Engleterre, par Jehan de Wavrin, edited by Mlle. Dupont; Lord Clermont's edition of the Works of Sir John Fortescue. Mrs Hookham's Life and Times of Margaret of Anjou (London, 8vo, 1872) is an elaborate and useful work, but not always accurate and discriminating in the use of authorities.

MARGARET OF AUSTRIA (1480-1530), duchess of Savoy, and regent of the Netherlands from 1507 to 1530, was the daughter of the emperor Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, and was born at Brussels on January 10, 1480. In 1482 she was betrothed to Charles, the son of Louis XI. (afterwards Charles VIII. of France); and in 1497 she was actually married to the infante John of Aragon, who left her a widow a few months afterwards. In 1501 she became the wife of Philibert II. of Savoy, who only survived until 1504; and in 1507 she was entrusted by Maximilian with the regency of the Netherlands and also

This is clearly the date intended by William Wyrcestre (p. 496); and it agrees entirely with Monstrelet (iii. 96). Yet almost all modern historians (except Lingard) and even biographers of Margaret of Anjou date her departure to Flanders after the battle of Hexham, at which she certainly was not present, as they would have her.

1

with the charge of his grandson Charles. She died at Mechlin in 1530.

MARGARET OF AUSTRIA (1522-1586), duchess of Parma, and regent of the Netherlands from 1559 to 1567, was a natural daughter of Charles V. by Margaret van Gheenst, a Flemish lady, and was born at Brussels in 1522. In 1533 she was married to Alexander, duke of Florence; and, having been left a widow in 1537, she became the wife of Ottavio Farnese, duke of Parma, in 1542. The union proved an unhappy one, and she for the first time found a sphere for her somewhat masculine abilities in the Netherlands, which were entrusted to her care by her brother Philip II. of Spain on his departure for the peninsula in 1559 (see HOLLAND, vol. xii. pp. 74, 75). It was with much reluctance that she resigned the reins of power into the hands of the duke of Alva in 1567 and retired to Italy. Before her death, which occurred at Ortona in 1586, she had the satisfaction of seeing her son Alexander Farnese appointed to the government which she had occupied some twenty years before.

MARGARET, ST, queen of Scotland, born in Hungary about 1040, was a daughter of Edward the Atheling, son of Edmund Ironside; her mother was Agatha, most probably a niece of Queen Gisela of Hungary and of the emperor Henry II. She accompanied her father to England in 1057, and after the Norman Conquest she was brought (1068) to Scotland, where she became the wife of Malcolm Canmore in the spring of 1069. She survived her husband, who died in November 1093, by only a few days (see SCOTLAND). The chroniclers all agree in depicting Queen Margaret as a strong, pure, noble character, who had very great influence over, her husband, and through him over Scottish history, especially in its ecclesiastical aspects. Her religion, which was genuine and intense, was of the newest Roman style; and to her are attributed a number of reforms by which the Church of Scotland was considerably modified from the insular and primitive type which down to her time it had exhibited. Among those expressly mentioned are a change in the manner of observing Lent, which thenceforward began as elsewhere on Ash Wednesday and not as previously on the following Monday, and the abolition of the old practice of observing Saturday (Sabbath), not Sunday, as the day of rest from labour (see Skene's Celtic Scotland, book ii. chap. 8). Her sons Edgar, Alexander, and David successively occupied the throne of Scotland; her elder daughter, Matilda, became the wife of Henry I. of England in 1101. Margaret was canonized by Innocent IV. in 1251, and by Clement X. she was made patroness of Scotland. Her festival (semiduplex) is observed by the Roman Church on June 10.

MARGARET (1283-1290), known in Scottish history as the "Maid of Norway," was, through her mother Margaret, who had been married to Eric of Norway, the only in Norway in 1283. grandchild of Alexander III. of Scotland, and was born At the death of her grandfather (1286), while she was still an infant, Edward I. of England arranged for her betrothal to his son, but this policy alleged, in Orkney, as she was on her way to Scotland, in was defeated by her early death, which took place, it was 1290.

that doubts were entertained in some quarters whether she The circumstances of her death were so obscure had not rather been spirited away. About 1300 a woman presented herself in Leipsic as the long-lost queen of Scotland; ultimately, however, she was burnt at Bergen as an impostor.

MARGARET OF VALOIS. See MARGUERITE.

MARGARITA, an island in the Caribbean Sea, about 8 miles off the coast of Venezuela, constituting along with the lesser islands Blanquilla and Hermanos the new state of Nueva Esparta. It has an area of 400 square miles, XV. -.68

in celebrating her charms, she does not, from the portraits which exist, appear to have been regularly beautiful, but as to her sweetness of disposition and strength of mind there is universal consent.

Her literary work has not yet been given entirely to the world, but the printed portion of it makes her a considerable figure in French literature. It consists of the Heptameron, of poems entitled Les Marguerites de la Marguerite des Princesses, and of Letters. The Heptameron, constructed as its name indicates on the lines of the Decameron of Boccaccio, consists of seventy-two short stories told to each other by a company of ladies and gentlemen who are stopped in the journey homewards from Cauterets by the swelling of a river. It was not printed till 1558, ten years after the author's death. Internal evidence is strongly in favour of its having been a joint work, in which more than one of the men of letters who composed Marguerite's household took part. It is a delightful book, and strongly characteristic of the French Renaissance. The sensuality which characterized the period appears in it, but in a less coarse form than in the great work of Rabelais; and there is a poetical spirit which, except in rare instances, is absent from Pantagruel. The Letters are interesting and good. The Marguerites consist of a very miscellaneous collection of poems, mysteries, farces, devotional poems of considerable length, spiritual and miscellaneous songs, &c. Other poems, said to be of equal merit, are still unprinted, or have appeared only in part.

II. The second MARGUERITE (1523-1574), daughter of Francis I., married the duke of Savoy in 1559. She is noteworthy as having given the chief impulse at the court of her brother Henry II. to the first efforts of the Pléiade.

III. The third MARGUERITE (1553-1615), called more particularly Marguerite de Valois, was great-niece of the first and niece of the second, being daughter of Henry II. by Catherine de'Medici. She was born in 1553. When very young she became famous for her beauty, her learning, and the looseness of her conduct. She was married to Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV., on the eve of St Bartholomew's Day. Both husband and wife were extreme examples of the licentious manners of the time, but they not unfrequently lived together for considerable periods, and nearly always on good terms. Later, however, Marguerite was established in the castle of Usson in Auvergne, and after the accession of Henry the marriage was dissolved by the pope. But Henry and Marguerite still continued friends; she still bore the title of queen; she visited Marie de' Medici on equal terms; and the king frequently consulted her on important affairs, though his somewhat parsimonious spirit was grieved by her extravagance. Marguerite exhibited during the rest of her life, which was not a short one, the strange Valois mixture of licentiousness, pious exercises, and the cultivation of art and letters, and died in 1615. She left letters and memoirs, the latter of which are admirably written, and rank among the best of the 16th century. She is the "Reine Margot" of anecdotic history and romance.

The best editions of the works of Marguerite d'Angoulême are-of the Heptameron, that of Leroux de Lincy, 8 vols., Paris, 1855; of the Letters, that of Genin, Paris, 2 vols., 1842-43; and of the Marguerites, that of Frank, Paris, 4 vols., 1873; the Heptameron is also obtainable in several cheap editions. The Mémoires of Marguerite de Valois are contained in the collection of Michaud and Poujoulat, and have been published separately by Guessard, Lalanne, Caboche, &c. (G. SA.)

MARIA THERESA (1717-1780), archduchess of Austria, queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and empress of Germany, was the daughter of the emperor Charles VI. of Austria, by his wife Elizabeth Christina of BrunswickWolfenbüttel, and was born in Vienna on May 13, 1717. By the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, a settlement which was guaranteed by the principal states of Europe, her father had regulated the succession in the imperial family; and in 1724 accordingly, after the death of the archduke Leopold, her only brother, she was publicly declared sole heiress of the Austrian dominions. In 1736 she married Francis Stephen of Lorraine, who in the following year

became grand-duke of Tuscany; and on October 20, 1740, she came to the throne, her husband (emperor in 1745) being declared co-regent. The events of her reign have been briefly summarized under AUSTRIA (vol. iii. p. 127129) and HUNGARY (xii. 370). She died at Vienna on November 29, 1780. Of sixteen children whom she bore to Francis, ten reached maturity. Her sons were Joseph II., who succeeded his father as Holy Roman emperor in 1765; Leopold, grand-duke of Tuscany, afterwards the emperor Leopold II.; Ferdinand, duke of Modena; and Maximilian, elector of Cologne. Of her daughters the best-known is Marie Antoinette, the wife of Louis XVI. of France.

MARIANA, JUAN DE (1536-1624), a celebrated Spanish historian, was born of obscure parentage at Talavera de la Reina in 1536. He studied at the university of Alcalá, and was admitted at the age of seventeen into the Society of Jesus, where he soon attracted notice by his brilliant talents and in 1561, he there professed theology four years, and extensive acquirements. Called to the Collegium Romanum reckoned among his pupils Robert Bellarmine, afterwards the famous cardinal. He then passed into Sicily, where he remained for about two years, and in 1569 he was sent to Paris, where his expositions of the writings of Aquinas attracted large audiences. In 1574 the decline of his health compelled him to give up teaching, and he obtained permission to return to Spain; the rest of his life was passed at the Jesuits' house in Toledo, in a vigorous literary activity which was interrupted only by the molestations to which his too great independence, liberality, and cand‹ur exposed him. He died on February 17, 1624.

His great work, Historia de Rebus Hispaniæ, first appeared in twenty books at Toledo in 1592; ten books were subsequently added (1605), bringing the work down to the accession of Charles V., and in a still later abstract of events the author completed it to the accession of Philip IV. in 1621. It was so well received that Mariana was induced to translate it into Spanish. The first part of this in some respects new work (Historia de España) appeared in 1601; it was completed in 1609, and much enlarged and improved in three subsequent editions which appeared during the translator's lifetime. It has been frequently reprinted since 1624, both in Latin and in Spanish; and an English translation by J. Stevens appeared in 1699. Mariana's History is justly esteemed for the extent of the author's researches, for the general accuracy of his acquaintance with the materials at his command, for the sagacity of his reflexions and characterizations, and above all for the merit of his style, which, in its simplicity, vividness, and directness, has deservedly been compared to that of Livy. The modern student may regret but can hardly blame the credulity with which in too many cases he has without the least attempt at historical criticism adopted the "received traditions of his country." Of the other works of Mariana, the most interesting is his treatise De Rege et Regis Institutione, of which the first edition, dedicated question whether it is lawful to overthrow a tyrant is freely disto Philip III., appeared at Toledo in 1599. In its sixth chapter the cussed and answered in the affirmative, -a circumstance which brought much popular odium upon the Jesuits, especially after the assassination of Henry IV. of France in 1610. See Bayle's Dictionnaire and Hallam's Literary History, part ii. chap. iv. A volume entitled Tractatus VII. Theologici et Historici, published by Mariana at Cologne in 1609, containing in particular a tract "On Mortality and Immortality," and another" De Mutatione Monetæ," was put upon the Index Expurgatorius, and led to the confinement and punishment of its author by the Inquisition. During his confinement there was found among his papers a criticism upon the Jesuits (De las Enfermedades de la Compañia de Jesus y de sus Remedios), which was believed to have been written by him. It was not printed until after his death (1625).

MARIAZELL, a village in the duchy of Styria, Austria, with about 1200 inhabitants, is very picturesquely situated in the valley of the Salza, amid the Styrian Alps. Its entire claim to notice lies in the fact that it is the most frequented sanctuary in Austria, being visited annually by about 100,000 pilgrims. The object of veneration is a miracle-working image of the Virgin, carved in lime-tree wood, and about 18 inches high. This was presented to the place in 1157, and is now reverently enshrined in a

It is hard to speak of Marie Antoinette with justice; her faults were caused by her education and position rather than her nature, and she expiated them far more bitterly than was deserved. She was thoroughly imbued with the imperial and absolutist ideas of Maria Theresa, and had neither the heart nor the understanding to sympathize with the aspirations of the lower classes. Her love of pleasure and of display ruined both her character and her reputation in her prosperous years, and yet, after a careful examination of many of the libels against her, it may be asserted with confidence that she was personally a virtuous woman, though always appearing to be the very reverse. Innocence is not always its own protection, and circumspection is as necessary for a queen as for any other woman, Her conduct throughout the Revolution is heart-rending; we, who live after the troubled times, can see her errors and the results of her pride and her caprice, but at the time she was the only individual of the royal family who could inspire the devotion which is always paid to a strong character. In the Marie Antoinette who suffered on the guillotine we pity, not the pleasure-loving queen, not the widow, who had kept her husband against his will in the wrong course, not the woman, who throughout her married life did not scruple to show her contempt for her slow and heavy but good-natured and loving king, but the little princess, sacrificed to state policy, and cast uneducated and without a helper into the frivolous court of France, not to be loved, but to be suspected by all around her, and eventually to be hated by the whole people of

France.

For lives and memoirs of Marie Antoinette before 1863, as well as engravings

of her, the student is referred to a complete and careful bio-bibliography, contained in M. de Lescure's La Vraie Marie Antoinette, Paris, 1863. This work,

however, contains many forged letters, purporting to be hers, and leads to the question of Marie Antoinette's published letters. There can be no doubt that very many fabrications by autograph makers for autograph collectors are published as authentic in D'Hunolstein, Correspondance inédite de Marie Antoinette, Paris, 1864; and in Feuillet des Conches, Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette, et Madame Elisabeth, lettres et documents inédites, Paris, 1865. The falsity of these letters was shown by Professor Von Sybel and by M. Geffroy in the Revue des Deux Mondes, and still more clearly in the latter's appendix to his Gustave III. et la cour de France, Paris, 1867. To study Marie Antoinette as she really lived, the student must consult Von Arneth's numerous publications on her and her mother and brothers, and particularly Arneth and Geffroy, Marie Antoinette: Correspondance secrète entre Marie-Thérèse et le Comte de Mercy-Argenteau, Paris, 3 vols., 1874, in which Marie Antoinette's daily life for ten years, from 1770-80,

is described for her mother's own eyes. For the affair of the necklace read Carlyle's Essay. For her imprisonment, trial, and execution, see Campardon's Tribunal Révolutionnaire, vol. 1., and the same author's Marie Antoinette à la Conciergerie, Paris, 1863. (H. M. S.)

It

MARIE DE FRANCE is one of the most interesting figures in the literary history of the Middle Ages. She is also one of the most mysterious. Nothing is known of her except from her own statements, which amount to little more than that her name was Marie and her country France, that she dedicated one of her works to an unnamed king, and another to a certain Count William. She is mentioned by Denis Pyramus, who was her contemporary, and who says that she was very popular, but gives no particulars. Attempts have been made to identify conjecturally the king and the count, -the most probable hypotheses being that the former was Henry III. of England, and the latter William Longsword of Salisbury; that is to say, Marie lived in the first half of the 13th century, and rather towards the beginning than the end of that half. Her work which remains to us is entirely poetical, and by no means inconsiderable in extent. falls naturally into three divisions. The first consists of lais or narrative poems in octosyllabic couplets. There are fourteen of them, the titles being Gugemer, Equitan, Le Frêne, Le Bisclavaret, Lanval, Les deux amants, Ywenec, Le Laustic ("the Nightingale "), Milon, Le Chaitivel ("the Unhappy One"), Le Chèvrefeuille, Eliduc, Graelent, L'Epine. The longest of these contains nearly twelve hundred lines; the shortest only just exceeds a hundred. The term lai is of Breton origin, and is believed to have had reference originally to the kind of music to which it was performed. But in Marie it is simply a short romance, generally of an amatory character. The merits of these poems are very great. They have much tenderness and delicacy of expression, flowing and melodious verse, and not a little descriptive power. The dialect is decidedly Norman in character, and English words occasionally occur, but are invariably explained in French. Some of these poems were paraphrased by the late Mr O'Shaughnessy in his Lays of France (London, 1872), but the translator indulged to such

an extert in amplification that the effect is very dissimilar to that of the original. The second division of Marie's work is of less poetical but of greater general interest. It consists of an Ysopet (a general term in the Middle Ages for a collection of fables) of one hundred and three fables, of which Marie tells us that Henry Beauclerk translated it from Latin into English, and that for the love of Count William, "the most valiant of this realm," she herself rhymed it from English into French. The fables are exceedingly well told, with a liveliness, elegance of verse, and ingenious aptness of moral which make Marie a worthy forerunner of La Fontaine. The question has been debated whether the great fabulist was acquainted with her work. All that can be said is that, though it is by no means impossible, and from internal evidence not even wholly improbable, it cannot be said to be very likely. The third of Marie's works is a poem of two thousand three hundred verses, describing the purgatory of Saint Patrick, written at the request of an unidentified "prudom," or man of worship. Marie has been longer and better known than most of the poets of medieval France, and perhaps she has been relatively a little overvalued, but her positive excellence is very considerable. Her style is a good example of the pure and highly organized language of the 13th century; and despite its great age it can be read by any person acquainted with modern French with a very small expense of attention, and with but slight use of glossaries.

The standard edition of Maric's works is by B. de Roquefort, 2 vols., Paris, 1820.

MARIENBAD, one of the precciest and most frequented watering-places on the Continent of Europe, with a station (about 1 miles S.E. of the town) on the Kaiser Franz Josephs Railway, lies in a pleasant valley in the district of Tepl, in the north-west of Bohemia, about 18 miles south of Carlsbad, and nearly 2000 feet above the level of the

sea.

Plan of Marienbad.

The gently-sloping hills which enclose it on all sides except the south are picturesquely wooded with fragrant pine forests. The town has an attractive and clean appearance, and is amply provided with buildings for the lodging and amusement of its thirteen thousand annual visitors, including a theatre and a large kurhaus. handsome Roman Catholic church and the tasteful little

The