NICARAGUA. It is only within a few years past that the political affairs or the physical resources of Central America have engaged the attention of the United States, by whose inhabitants, down to a very recent period, that country was almost unknown and very little cared for. ively of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Honduras; but under the Bulwer-Clayton treaty negotiated between England and the United States for the protection of an inter-oceanic route via the San Juan River, it became an independent municipality, governed by officers of its own choosing. The first direct aggression upon any part of Central America, emanating from the United States, was the bombardment of Greytown, by Captain Hollins, in the U. S. sloop of war Cyane, in July, 1854, because the municipal government declined to pay an indemnity demanded for an alleged insult to Solon Borland, who had succeeded Squier as American minister to Central America. Not long after, an expedition alleged to be for planting a colony in the Mosquito territory, was fitted out in New York, under the auspices of Col. Kinney. This expedition was opposed by the Transit Company, and arrested by the United States, as a violation of the ClaytonBulwer treaty, and of the neutrality laws, and encountered such other disasters that, although Kinney finally arrived at Greytown, with a few followers, he was not in a condition to undertake anything. After the discovery of gold in California, Mr. Squier was sent to Central America in a diplomatic capacity, but really, as it would seem from his subsequent publications, to examine into the facilities afforded by Central America for inter-oceanic communication, and its advantages for colonization. From this period the interest felt in the United States, in the affairs of Central America, may be said to date, which interest was greatly increased by the establishment of the Nicaragua Transit Route by the river San Juan, the lake Nicaragua and a road of fourteen miles from the west shore of that lake to the Pacific. The country along this route was traversed by numerous Americans, and soon began to be looked upon with covetous eyes. The confederacy formed in 1824, by the five States of Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras, and San Salvador, and constituting the Republic of Central America, after a series of violent struggles, had been An opportunity, however, soon occurred for for some years dissolved. Each of the five States a much more serious intervention in Central had become a separate State. Guatemala, the American affairs, than anything which Kinney most populous, had fallen under the control of seems to have contemplated. In 1851, Chomorthe native Indians, who had been instigated by ro, who belonged to the Granada faction, had the priests to rise against the reforming go-been elected President of Nicaragua. The Leon vernment of Morazan. Indeed it was this re- faction rebelled against him, calling thembellion which had led to the extinction of the selves democrats, and accusing Chomorro of Central American Republic. Guatemala was aristocratic principles. In this war the Leon and still is ruled by Carrera, a man of abilities faction were worsted; and in hopes of retrieving and intelligence, who has been for nine years their affairs, invited the assistance of Walker. at the head of its affairs and under whom the State enjoys peace and as much of prosperity as it has ever known. In Costa Rica, the southernmost and smallest of the Central American States, the population of Spanish birth has maintained its ascendency, and the recent introduction of the cultivation of coffee has placed that State in a prosperous condition. San Salvador also enjoys internal peace and a reasonable degree of prosperity, under a government of its own. The other two States, Nicaragua and Honduras, have been less fortunate, having been greatly disturbed since they set up for themselves, by internal feuds. This has been especially the case with Nicaragua, owing to a long rivalry which has existed between its two principal cities-Granada, on the lake Nicaragua, and Leon somewhat further to the north. William Walker, by profession a doctor and journalist, is a native of Tennessee, whence he emigrated to California. In October, 1858, at the head of a band of fifty-six desperadoes, he sailed from San Francisco, in a small schooner, with a view of revolutionizing or conquering the Mexican provinces of Sonora and Lower California. He landed in the peninsula of Lower California; had some skirmishes, established a footing there, levied supplies on the natives, proclaimed himself President, and set up a government. He then crossed to Sonora, and proclaimed that province a part of his government. But he was attacked, and his force, reduced to twenty men, was compelled in February, 1854, to retreat into California, which he reached with some six followers. This expedition concluded with his arrest and trial for a breach of the neutrality laws, of which, by a California jury, he was acquitted. We may add that, in addition to the five States above-named, the king of the Mosquito Indians claimed under the protectorate of Great Walker had been invited by Kinney to coBritain an independent authority over a por- operate in his expedition; but, instead of tion of the Central American territory, in- accepting that invitation, he gave preference to cluding the town of San Juan del Norte, or another from the Leon party of Nicaragua. Greytown, at the mouth of the River San Juan, Accordingly he fitted out a new expedition of a point which acquired great additional im- fifty-six men, with whom he sailed in the brig portance after the establishment of the Transit Vesta, on the 4th of May, 1855. He arrived at Route. This town was also claimed as being Realejo in June, where he was joined by 150 within their territories by the States respect-natives from Leon, and then proceeded against the town of Rivas, situated on the shore of the long before these confederates of Walker found lake Nicaragua, some fifty miles from Granada. themselves the victims of his filibustering avaAt Rivas a fight occurred, in which Walker rice. Under pretence of sums due from that lost ten men; after which he retreated to company to the Nicaraguan government, he San Juan del Sur, on the Pacific. Here he seized all their boats and other property on seized a schooner, by means of which his com- the river, and transferred them to another pany got on board their brig, and sailed for company, which undertook to substitute new Realejo. On the 11th of August, in company steamers on the Gulf and the Pacific, to conwith some of the Leon troops, he marched nect with New-York, New-Orleans, and San again for San Juan del Sur, whence he passed Francisco. The transfer of the plundered proby the Transit route to Virgin Bay, where perty was no doubt paid for by advances he had another and more successful fight, in money, clothing, and munitions, of which which, however, only resulted in a return to Walker stood so greatly in need. For a time San Juan del Sur. Here Walker was joined in things went on swimmingly. It was asserted October by more recruits from California, and by Walker's partisans that the natives were his forces were re-organized into a battalion delighted with his rule, and the prospect held of three companies, with which, on the 10th out by it of peace and prosperity. But whatand 11th October he returned to Virgin Bay. ever show of satisfaction might be made by One of the steamers of the Transit Company those immediately in Walker's power, this feelwas seized (if, indeed, that company was ing was far from being shared by the other not in league with Walker), in which he and States of Central America. his allies sailed for Granada. That town, almost ruined in former sieges, they succeeded in surprising. Nicaragua had been lately ravaged by the cholera. Many of the chiefs on both sides had perished, and Corral, the commander of Granada, now consented to a treaty, dated October 23, by which Rivas, the head of the Leon faction, was recognized as president, Walker as commander-in-chief, and Parker H. French, one of his confederates, as minister of finance; but this new government was no sooner organized, than Corral was seized, and shot on a charge of treason, This sudden and unexpected success of Walker in raising himself to the head of affairs in Nicaragua, for though Rivas was the nominal president, he was the actual ruler, was followed by the establishment of an official journal in Spanish and English, called El Nicaraguense, and by the dispatch of Parker H. French, Walker's fellow-adventurer, and minister of finance, to this country, in the character of Nicaraguan ambassador, appointed to supersede Mr. Marcoleta, who had been residing at Washington in that capacity. They were all greatly alarmed at the revolution which had thrown Nicaragua into the power of a band of emigrant mercenaries. Walker made some attempts to conciliate them, but without success, and perceiving he could accomplish nothing by diplomacy, he declared war against the whole of them. But though bent on expelling Walker, these States did not act simultaneously. Without waiting for the slower movements of Guatemala and San Salvador, the Costa Ricans hastened to take the field. Walker endeavored to anticipate them by sending Colonel Schlessinger at the head of 800 men to invade their country, but he was met on the frontier, at the Hacienda of St. Rosa, by a Costa Rican force under General Don Jose Mora, was surprised, and his command dispersed with considerable loss in killed and prisoners. Soon after, the Costa Rican forces advanced into Nicaragua, and on the 6th of April Walker abandoned Rivas, which he had made his head-quarters, embarking all his forces in the boats of the Transit Company. Rivas soon after fell into the hands of the invaders, who also occupied Virgin Bay and San Juan del Sur. They advanced at the same time upon the San Juan river, and some skirmishes occurred in that direction. Walker at length landed at Granada, whence, on the 8th, he marched by land, with 650 men, to attack Rivas, fifty miles distant. He reached Rivas on the 11th, and after fighting a day and night fell back with heavy loss on Granada. The filibusters seemed on the point of being driven from the country, but were saved by the cholera, which had broken out in the Costa Rican camp, and committed great ravages there, in consequence of which the invaders retired without attempting anything further. French, who had made himself infamous by the frauds and peculations of which he had been guilty in connection with an overland expedition to California, was refused a reception at Washington, on the ground of want of evidence that he represented any bonâ fide government of Nicaragua; and orders were sent to Minister Wheeler, who had hastened at once to recognize Walker, to take the same ground. Thus rejected, French proceeded to New-York, where, in conjunction with the officers of the Transit Company, he entered into arrangements for sending out recruits to Walker. The government, however, interfered; the steamers were stopped and searched, and Walker, meanwhile, to give some show of a number of prosecutions were commenced for legality to his usurpation, and to remove the violation of the neutrality act; but these pro- objections taken at Washington, had caused ceedings did not prevent the embarkation of the form of an election to be gone through with, many recruits. Others sailed without any at which, of course, Rivas was chosen Presihindrance whatever from New Orleans and dent by an overwhelming majority, immediateSan Francisco, and Walker's army was shortly ly after which he dispatched Father Vijil, a raised to S00 or 1,000 men, without counting priest, to Washington, as the representative of the native troops that adhered to his standard. Nicaragua. The news of Walker's precarious Notwithstanding his apparent good under-condition had caused some hesitation about his standing with the Transit Company, it was not reception, but after accounts had arrived of the failure of the Costa Rica expedition, Vijil was received, and Walker's usurpation was thus formally recognized at Washington. But beyond this recognition, and the inducement which it held out to new adventurers to flock to Nicaragua, and to gambling capitalists to invest money in the operation, Father Vijil's mission did nothing for Walker, and that clerical envoy soon grew discontented and returned home. was thus hemmed in between the Lake and the Pacific. The province of Chontales, on the north side of the lake, was in the hands of hostile natives, and a division of the allied forces was stationed at or near Tipatapa, on the river which connects Lake Nicaragua with the smaller Lake of Managua, lying to the north of it. At the same time a fresh invasion was threatened from Costa Rica on the south. Growing Meanwhile, the people of San Salvador and impatient at the non-advance of the enemy, Guatemala threatened a new invasion, and who seemed intent to hold him thus blockaded, Walker, to be ready to meet them, removed his on the 19th of October Walker, leaving only a head-quarters to Leon, taking Rivas and his few troops in Granada, marched, with all the ministers along with him. Though constantly force he could muster, being about 1,000 men, to receiving new recruits from the United States, attack Masaya, probably in hopes of & surhis available force did not increase, his loss by prise. The allies, however were prepared for sickness being very great, and his men, dis- him, and gave him so warm a reception that he gusted at the non-reception of any pay and found himself obliged, at midnight, to retire the total failure of the splendid promises by again to Granada, which place, except the which they had been entrapped, running away hospital, guard-house, and ordinance stores, he whenever they could in spite of Walker's severe found, when he reached it, in possession of a precautions to prevent it. The unhappy people party of 800 natives, who, shortly after his deof Nicaragua were subjected to arbitrary impo-parture, had entered the town. While still sitions, and those of them who showed any engaged in taking away their plunder, Walker evidence of dissatisfaction, to confiscation and suddenly approached and a severe engagement plunder. Yet Walker was all the time misera- ensued in the "Jalteva," or upper part of the bly poor, and unable to pay anybody, though city. The invaders were finally driven off, as in receipt of considerable military supplies Walker alleges, with heavy loss, leaving him from his friends in the United States. in possession of the plundered town. After a short residence at Leon, Rivas, foreseeing his own fate in the military execution, on some pretense or other, visited by Walker on other native leaders, took an opportunity to abscond, and Walker, having retired to Granada, caused himself to be chosen President, of which office he took possession the 12th of July. Of the troops left at Leon, the natives soon deserted to Rivas, while the Americans fell back to Managua, about thirty miles north of Granada; whereupon Leon was occupied by Rivas, assisted by a body of troops from Guatemala and San Salvador, under whose auspices a coalition was formed by the two old parties against the filibusters, Rivas resigning, and Don Fernando Gusman being appointed provisional President. An expedition undertaken about the middle of September by a body of Walker's men, against San Jacinto, some forty miles from Granada, was repulsed with disaster and loss. This encouraged the combined force at Leon to advance upon Managua, which was abandoned by the filibusters, who fell back to Masaya, about twelve or fifteen miles from Granada. Subsequently to these events, the government at Washington has refused to receive the ministers sent by Walker, or to recognize him as President of Nicaragua. Meanwhile, Granada was visited by Mr. Soulé, from New Orleans, under whose inspiration, as is supposed, Walker issued a decree, dated Sept. 22, re-legalizing slavery, which decree, together with another offering for sale on the first of January, a long list of confiscated estates, appraised at the value of some $800,000, seemed intended to open the way for the immigration of slave-holding planters. These decrees, however, did not stop the native army from advancing upon Masaya, which was abandoned on their approach, the whole filibustering force being withdrawn from all the outposts and concentrated in Granada. Walker He and his friends proclaimed these operations as great victories, and promised a speedy re-advance on Masaya, and the expulsion of the allies. Instead of this, Walker remained stationary at Granada, till the 9th of November, by which time the Costa Ricans had again invaded Nicaragua from the South, and taken possession of San Juan del Sur. Hornsby, who commanded at Virgin Bay, after a vain attempt to drive them out, sent to Walker for assistance. He came from Granada in a steamer, with a detachment, and advanced on San Juan del Sur, when the Costa Ricans retired to Rivas, which they occupied. Walker then returned to Granada, and marched with all his force to attack Masaya, but was again repulsed and obliged to retreat to Granada, followed closely by the enemy. He succeeded in embarking his wounded and sick, whom he transported to an island in the lake; but before his troops could effect their retreat, they were surrounded by the advancing enemy, and obliged to take refuge in a stone church, about four hundred yards from the shore of the lake. Here, at the last accounts, they had been besieged for twelve days. Walker was in a steamer, hovering in sight of his besieged men, and occasionally running down to Virgin Bay, but utterly unable to render them any assistance, as the wharf at Granada had been destroyed. and the lake shore was in possession of the allies, whose cannon obliged Walker to keep his distance. At Virgin Bay and San Juan del Sur, were three or four hundred men, one-third recruits, lately arrived from California. Two or three hundred, recruits, were also on their way up the San Juan; but Walker had no stores or supplies, and his men, almost in a starving condition, were daily dropping off with the cholera. Such was the state of things about the 1st of December. EUROPE IN 1856. A BRIEF survey of the current history of Eu-| considerations of humanity, was bearing upon rope for eighteen hundred and fifty-six, will be them on one side, there was danger, if it went made clearer by a glance at some events of the on, that it would extend its geographical limits preceding year. The war then going on, had and change its character; that it would first been commenced under false pretences. Tur- become a European war, and then a war of key was perhaps the only honest party en- opinions, and finally a war of Western liberalgaged. The regard felt by the Western Powers ism against Eastern despotism-from which the for her national independence, and the regard actual western managers had in the end as felt by the Czar for the religious freedom of her much to fear as the Czar himself. Greek subjects, were doubtless equally sincere The situation was an embarrassing one for and disinterested. As the real motives to the all parties to the war. They anxiously desired opening of the war, so the real motives to the an opportunity of relief. Such opportunity closing of it, are not very plainly set down in was presented by the fall of the south side of the correspondence of diplomatists, or in the Sebastopol, on September 8th, 1855. The long records of the Peace Congress. Some notice of resistance on one part, and the crowning though the latter, will not be out of place here. partial success on the other, could pass respectively as certificates of saved honor. Austrian diplomacy now actively intervened. After an unreadably voluminous correspondence between the various cabinets, of which, however, it is but just to say, that it was more direct in phrase and of plainer purpose, than the correspondence of old-time diplomats-another effect of the enlightenment of public opinion, to which its authors knew it must eventually be submitted. Austria, the agent for the Western Powers, finally offered four propositions as the preliminaries to negotiations, which were accepted by the Cabinet of St. Petersburg, on January 16, 1856. It is noticeable here, that the propositions tending to peace, came from the victors; and that, although coming from them, and destructive of that traditional prestige, to which Russia had hitherto owed a large part of her great influence on European politics, they were accepted without qualification. Again the strength acquired by public opinion in the last forty years, can alone account for this reversion of the wonted course of British pride, and Gallic vanity, and Muscovite obstinacy. All parties had grown weary of the strenuous efforts required by the contest. No party had much reason to be satisfied with the acquired or prospective results. One's loss was not the other's gain; all were losing. This is usually the case in quarrels, either between nations or individuals; the novelty lies in the recognition of the fact by the combatants, at so early a stage of hostilities. A century ago they would, in like conditions, have prolonged them blindly and madly, to geographical conquest or complete exhaustion. Never before was a war of such proportions brought to so speedy a termination; never before was so murderous a war carried on with so little virulence; never before did the authors of "necessary evils" mingle such deprecations in their boastful bulletins of victory; never before did they so anxiously plead the rightfulness of their conduct before the bar of the world's opinion; never before was there such importance or difficulty in gaining a favorable verdict, for never before was that opinion so enlightened and so formidable. Never before was there a war whose costs were so closely counted, let alone the question of humanity also better understood than former- The representatives of Austria, Russia, Great ly. The industrial triumphs gained during a Britain, France, and Turkey, next held a prepeace of forty years, had shown people the pro-liminary conference at Vienna, on February 1st, ductive value of a man; and the loss of pro- when arrangements based on the acceptance ductive force by the withdrawal of men from of the propositions referred to above, were industrial pursuits, was added to the loss of made, for the opening of general negotiations productive force by the consumption of men at Paris. Accordingly delegate plenipotentiaand money in war. As has been said, strikingly ries of Russia, France, England, Austria, Turenough: "If the allied forces and opposing key, and Sardinia, two for each nation, met forces, of all sorts-intellectual forces among in Congress in the French capital, on February the rest that were spent in this war, had been 25th. It was evident from the outset, that set to work on our western lands, they would their purpose was to conclude a peace, and have formed a great State, and might have fed that quickly. A short armistice was declared. half Europe with the corn they raised." Warlike preparations were continued with great vigor, but only to furnish a sort of base, on which the plenipotentiaries might stand at van. tage, to advocate the claims of the powers they respectively represented. It is to be observed that the people had nothing to do with the origin or conduct of this quarrel, which caused the destruction of nearly half a million lives, and a derangement of family, religions, property, and other "institutions," nearly as serious, one would think, as though it had been revolutionary. They had only to pay, fight, starve, freeze, and die. It had been started and managed by conservative monarchs, of whom the Czar and the French Emperor were the chief. But with all this, while public opinion, based on material interests and With these dispositions, there was but one point that presented any very serious difficulty. It was the third in order. They approached it first in their discussions-for that being settled, all the rest followed almost as a matter of course. This point, or as it is often called, the third guarantee of peace, was the "neutralization of the Black Sea." What should be the gress by the plenipotentiaries from Sardinia. significance extended to this phrase? The definition which it was agreed to give to it, is expressed at length in the treaty, from article 10th to article 14th, inclusive; and is sub-forth in brief the fearful misrule under which stantially as follows: The previously existing treaty stipulations concerning the closing to foreign war vessels of the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, remain in force; The waters of the Black Sea are open to the merchant vessels of all nations; Commerce in that sea shall be free from all impediments; Consuls shall be admitted to reside in its ports; the Emperor of Russia and the Sultan bind them selves not to build or maintain on its shores, any military maritime arsenal; The force and number of light vessels requisite for the police They warned these powers that the prolongand revenue service in these waters, shall be ation of such oppression, as was practised on determined by a convention annexed to this the Italian people must end in violent revolutreaty, which convention shall be neither modi-tion; and revolution once breaking out in the fied nor annulled, without the consent of the peninsula, where in continental Europe would contracting powers. it fail to excite sympathy and imitation? The treaty was signed on March 30th. It is Accordingly, Great Britain and France, and not necessary to detail all its articles, which are even Austria, with an ill grace, have offered mothirty-three in number. It is enough to say of nitory advice to the King of Naples, which that it, and of the three conditions annexed to it, potentate has received as impudently as logicthat, while they contain provisions which, like ally, with a contemptuous reference either to those just cited, limit the power hitherto ex- the acts of his advisers, or to their avowed ercised by Russia, they do not give to the West-principles of independent sovereignty. ern Powers one inch of new territory or one penny of indemnification. And yet the peace was rejoiced over in all the capitals of Europe. A little grumbling in English newspapers, which was natural and rational enough, had no great significance. The neglect of Russia in executing certain provisions of the treaty has caused some difficulty, mainly with Great Britain, which has been greatly exaggerated by European journalists. Neither of those States is at least inclined to a new war. France and Russia, meantime, are better friends than at any time since 1830. Napoleon sent a most brilliant complimentary Embassy, with his half-brother, Count de Morny, at its head, to attend Alexander's coronation, which took place at Moscow, on September 7. In this and other indications of friendliness between the two monarchs, some over wise prophets think they foresee a close political union between these two emperors, and a consequent rupture of the Anglo-French alliance. Their vision grows clearer in the same direction, as they see a little quarrel going on between the English and French newspapers, the importance of which is vastly overrated. Straws do not always show which way the wind blows; they are often whirled about by chance whiffs in directions quite opposite to the main atmospheric current. Consequently, and just at present, diplomatic relations are suspended between the cabinets of London and Paris on the one hand, and the monarch of the Two Sicilies on the other. Prussia has taken advantage of this imbroglio to re-assert her claims upon the Swiss canton of Neuchatel. In 1848, Neuchatel declared its independence of the King of Prusia, who had previously exercised a certain sovereignty over it, and, in the troubles of that time, his majesty had more important business on hand than resisting this independence, which thus became fully established. Last summer a number of royalists in the canton revolted, were imprisoned, and are about to be tried. Prussia demands their release, which being refused by the Swiss Federal authorities, she menaces force. There is little danger, however, that she will execute her threat. Spain has had rather more than its usual number of revolutions, during the year just past. The last changes are decidedly revolutionary, and the present purpose of the Queen looks to arbitrary rule and reconciliation with the Carlists. It is safe, to prophesy that the actual state of things in that unhappy country has no permanent base. France, seems for the moment, to have passed through the late financial crisis, which seemed so threatening to the stability of material inThe conclusion of the treaty of peace was terests and of Napoleon's throne. Still the zeal not the end of the labors of the Paris Congress. of speculation, originally encouraged by him Its members agreed upon certain important as a safer object of attention than matters amendments to the received doctrines of inter-political, is checked, not subdued. The bold national maritime law, respecting the right of adventurer must still sit uneasily. Meantime neutrals, which have been offered for accept- the rumor runs, ever gathering likelihood, ance to governments not represented in the though as yet positive proof is wanting, that Congress. What they were, as well as their his head begins to reel on the dizzy height he reception by the United States, and the essen- has climbed to. Reports, that can be traced tially logical addition proposed by Secretary back to something like medical authority, preMarcy, may be learned in another part of this tend that his mental as well as bodily health is Almanac. failing. At the close of another year we may have to record the delayed judgment of heaven upon this successful criminal. The wretched condition of affairs in Italy was forced upon the consideration of the con |