recalled him in 1774, and placed him at the head of his ministry. Removed from public affairs for the space of thirty years, Maurepas had lost whatever requisite he had ever possessed for the administration of government. With the imprudence of his youth was now united the feebleness of age. He retained the confidence of the king till his death, Nov. 21, 1781; but he was destitute of the vigor necessary to avert the troubles which soon after shook the kingdom. France was, however, indebted to him for some improvements in the marine. The Memoirs of Maurepas, composed by Sallé, his secretary, and edited by Soulavie, are amusing, but carelessly written. Vergennes (q. v.) succeeded him in the ministry. (See Louis XVI.) MAURI, and MAURITANIA. (See Moors.) MAURICE; Count of Saxony, commonly known as marshal Saxe. (See Saxe.)

MAURICE, duke, and, after 1548, elector of Saxony (of the Albertine line), born in 1521, displayed, from his early years, great talents, united with a restless, active and ardent spirit. In 1541, the death of his father, Henry the Pious, placed him at the head of the government, at the moment when the religious disputes had divided the German princes. Although a favorer of Protestantism, he refused to join the Smalcaldic league of Protestant princes, for the defence of the new doctrines, either out of attachment to Ferdinand, king of Hungary and Bohemia, against whose brother Charles V (q. v.) the league was organized, or because he foresaw that it could not stand. In 1546, he concluded a secret treaty with the emperor, and was obliged to execute the ban of the empire against John Frederic, elector of Saxony (of the Ernestine line), and take possession of his territories. In 1548, the emperor conferred on him the electoral dignity of Saxony, and the greater part of the hereditary estates of the late elector. Charles now thought the moment was come to execute his project of annihilating the rights and privileges of the German princes, and rendering himself absolute master of Germany; and, although he artfully maintained a show of protecting the Catholics, labored only for his own selfish interests. Maurice was not slow to penetrate the crafty policy of the ambitious monarch. Convinced that a forcible resistance would become necessary, he made his preparations, in 1550, under the pretence of executing the decree of the diet against Magdeburg, concluded a secret treaty with Henry II of France, and some of the German princes (1551), and

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conducted so warily, that he had nearly succeeded in making Charles, who lay sick with the gout at Inspruck, his prisoner (1552). In justification of this unexpected act of hostility, Maurice alleged the detention of his father-in-law by the emperor, contrary to solemn promises. The emperor, upon this, set free the princes whom he held captive, and proposed terms of accommodation by his brother Ferdinand. The result of this negotiation was the famous treaty of Passau (q. v.), July 31, 1552. Maurice, who had thus recovered the favor of the Protestants, now thought proper to give the emperor, likewise, a proof of his attachment, by serving against the Turks. Nothing, however, was effected, and he soon after returned to Saxony. July 9, 1553, he defeated Albert, margrave of BrandenburgKulmbach, who refused to accede to the treaty of Passau, at Sievershausen, and died of a wound received in that battle, two days after. Maurice possessed the talents of a great prince and general, with a prudence that enabled him to take advantage of circumstances. Notwithstanding the shortness of his reign, Saxony is indebted to him for many useful institutions.

MAURICE OF NASSAU, prince of Orange, the youngest son, by a second marriage, of William I, prince of Orange, born at Dillenburg, 1567, was studying at Leyden, in 1584, when his father was assassinated. The provinces of Holland and Zealand, and, soon after, Utrecht, immediately elected the young prince stadtholder, and his talents, as a general, surpassed all expectations. In 1590, he took Breda by surprise, and delivered Guelderland, Överyssel, Friesland and Gröningen from the Spaniards. With the chief command, by land and sea, of all the forces of the United Provinces, he also received the stadtholdership of Guelderland and Overyssel, that of Friesland and Gröningen being conferred on his cousin William, count of Nassau. Previous to the truce of twelve years, concluded in 1609, about forty towns, and several fortresses, had fallen into his hands. He defeated the Spaniards in three pitched battles, besides the nava! victories which were gained by the vice-admirals of the republic, on the coasts of Spain and Flanders. Thus become the object of general affection and respect to his countrymen, his ambitious spirit now aimed at the sovereignty. To effect his purposes, he took advantage of the religious quarrels of the Arminians and Gomarists, or the Remonstrants and Counter-Remonstrants. (See Arminians.) He

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supported the Gomarists, even to acts of violence (see Barneveldt), but, notwithstanding all his efforts, he was compelled to abandon his project. He died at the Hague, April 23, 1625, and was succeeded by his brother Frederic Henry. The life of this stadtholder was an almost unbroken series of battles, sieges, and victories. War he understood as a master, and conducted like a hero. His army was considered as the best school of the military art. The generals educated under him have contributed to extend his faine. Like Montecuculi, he possessed the rare art of conducting a march and pitching a camp; like Vauban, the genius of fortification and defence; like Eugene, the skill to support the most numerous armies in the most unproductive and exhausted country; like Vendome, the good fortune to obtain more from the soldiers than he had a right to expect; like Condé, that unerring coup d'œil which determines the issue of the battle; like Charles XII, the power of rendering the troops insensible to cold, hunger, and sufferings; like Turenne, that of sparing human life. In the opinion of Folard, Maurice was the greatest infantry general that had existed since the time of the Romans. He had learned the art of war from the ancients, and extended it by the results of his own and others' experience.

MAURITIUS. (See France, Isle of.) MAUROKORDATOS. (See Mavrocordato.) MAUROMICHALIS. (See Mavromichali.) MAURUS, Rabanus, a German scholar, of the age of Charlemagne, who did much to promote the improvement of his nation, was a native of Mayence, received his education in the Benedictine monastery at Fulda, and subsequently went to Tours, to complete his studies under Alcuin. After his return, in 804, he became superintendent of the monastic school at Fulda, from which proceeded many distinguished scholars. After many adversities, which the diffusers of light, in the dark ages, always had to encounter, he was consecrated, in 822, abbot of Fulda, and, during the twenty years that he held this office, the beneficial influence of his literary school, and of his truly Christian churchdiscipline, continued to increase. Dissatisfied with the turbulence of the times, he was desirous of finishing his life as a hermit; but king Louis the German obliged him, in 847, to accept the archbishopric of Mayence. In this dignity he died in 856. His Latin writings, mainly of a theological character, appeared at Cologne in 1627, in folio.

In the diffusion and formation of

the German language he was very active, and so far succeeded as to introduce preaching in German. He also compiled a Latin and German glossary of the Bible, preserved in several manuscripts, a valuable monument of the old German language, which has been printed in Schil ter's Thesaurus, and in Eckardt's Commentarii de Reb. Franc.

MAURY, Jean Siffrein, born at Vauréas, in Provence, in 1746, of obscure parentage, took holy orders, and soon received several benefices. His eulogy on Fénélon, and his talents as a preacher, attracted the public notice, and, previous to the breaking out of the revolution, had procured for him the place of a court-preacher, the priory of Lyons, the dignity of abbot of Frénade, and a seat in the French academy. He showed his gratitude for this patronage of government, by exercising his courage and his eloquence in defence of the throne. In 1789, the abbé Maury was chosen deputy of the clergy of Peronne to the States-General, and became a formidable antagonist to the opposition by his eloquence, his extensive and profound knowledge, and, particularly, by his presence of mind, and his imperturbable firmness. The union of the three estates in a national assembly met with the most vigorous resistance from him, and, after it was determined upon, he quitted the assembly and Versailles, but afterwards returned, and took an active part in that body. He defended the necessity of the royal veto, and opposed the conversion of the church property into national domains. When the latter subject was discussed for the third time, Nov. 9, 1789, Maury produced a violent excitement in the assembly by his speech, and, on leaving the house, was saluted by the crowd with the cry, A la lanterne l'abbé Maury. Eh bien, replied he coolly, le voilá, l'abbé Maury; quand vous le mellriez à la lanterne, y verriez-vous plus clair? This reply produced a general laugh, and the able was saved. On the dissolution of the assembly, in 1792, he retired to Rome, and received a bishopric in partibus from the pope, who sent him to Frankfort as apostolic nuncio at the coronation of Francis II. He was soon after (1794) created bishop of Montefiascone and Corneto, and cardinal. During the revolutionary storm, Maury remained at Rome, devoted to the duties of his charge and to study. His pastoral letters contained expressions of his abhorrence of the cruelties committed in France, and of his adherence to the Bourbons. Thus far he had displayed a con

sistency of character, as even his declared enemies acknowledged. But when Napoleon usurped the imperial dignity, in 1804, Maury considered the cause of the Bourbons as hopeless, and thought it an act of prudence on his part to submit to the government, which was recognised by the French nation, and by nearly all the powers of Europe. He might justify this measure by his previous adherence to monarchical principles, and might hope to be useful in extending the papal prerogatives in France, which had been much limited by the concordate of 1801. Perhaps, also, his ambition was flattered with the prospect of thus reaching the highest spiritual dignity in Catholic Christendom. However this may be, he wrote in terms of the highest admiration to Napoleon, and proffered his allegiance as a French subject. In 1804, he accompanied the pope to Paris, and was present at the coronation of the emperor. In 1808, he was created archbishop of Paris, and was thenceforward the most devoted servant of his master. All his pastoral letters, and his discourses, recommended the most unconditional obedience to the decrees of Napoleon, and his addresses to the emperor abounded in the most abject terms of adulation. In 1814, he was obliged to leave the archiepiscopal palace in Paris, and the capital would no longer recognise him as archbishop, since he had no papal brief to produce. He hastened to Rome, but there was thrown into the castle of St. Angelo, for having accepted the archbishopric without the consent of the holy see. After subjecting himself to various humiliations, he was again acknowledged as cardinal, but died at Rome, in 1817, without recovering his archbishopric, or his former consideration. MAUSOLEUM (panow\èior), from Mausolus, a king of Caria, to whom a sumptuous sepulchre was raised by his wife Artemisia. King Mausolus is said to have expired in the year 353 B. C.; and his wife was so disconsolate at the event, that she drank up his ashes, and perpetuated his memory by the erection of this magnificent monument, which became so famous as to be esteemed the seventh wonder of the world, and to give a generic name to all superb sepulchres. (See an essay of count Caylus, in the 26th volume of the Mém. de l'Académie des Belles-Lettres; and Aulisio, De Mausolei Architectura, in Sallengre, Thes. III.) Other famous mausoleums are the mausoleum of Augustus, built by him in his sixth consulate, on the Campus Martius, between the Via Fla

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minia and the Tiber. The ruins are still seen near the church of St. Roque, and one of the obelisks which stood before this superb building was found in the reign of pope Sixtus V, and placed before the church of St. Maria Maggiore. This mausoleum contained the ashes of Augustus, Marcellus, Agrippa, Germanicus, and of some later emperors. The Mausoleum Hadriani is now the castle of St. Angelo.

MAVROCORDATO, Alexander (called, by courtesy, prince*), one of the ablest leaders of the Greeks, in their recent revolution, is descended from an ancient Fanariot family, which has given several interpreters and hospodars to the Porte. He was born about 1790, and early displayed proofs of a strong and penetrating mind, with an inclination for the severe studies. His acquaintance with the Eastern and European languages affords a remarkable instance of his powers of acquisition. He speaks seven languages with facility and correctness. His knowledge of Turkish history is also profound. His political education early initiated him into the artful and tortuous policy of the Fanariots, and rendered him a more skilful statesman than the rude chiefs of Greece. Mavrocordato was, for some time, chief minister to his uncle, the hospodar of Walachia, and afterwards accompanied him into Western Europe-Switzerland, Italy and France. On the breaking out of the Greek revolution, Alexander, who was in France, hastened to Marseilles, and, partly at his own expense, and partly by the contributions of his friends, loaded a vessel with arms, and sailed for Greece. His arrival at Missolonghi (1821) was hailed by his countrymen with the greatest enthusiasm. Presenting himself to Demetrius Ypsilanti, who was before Tripolizza, Mavrocordato desired to be employed in some useful way, and received a commission to direct the insurrection then beginning in Etolia. He traversed Etolia, Locris, Boeotia, and penetrated to Arta, to confer with the Suliots; he also endeavored to turn the situation of Ali Pacha (q. v.) to the advantage of the Greeks, and encouraged the Albanian chiefs in their disaffection. He next proceeded to organize an internal government for Greece, as the only means of sustaining a concert in the resistance against the Turks. Aware of the impor

*The hospodars of Moldavia and Walachia ed the title to their sons, &c. were usually styled princes, and courtesy extendHence Ypsilanti, Mavrocordato and Cantacuzene are so called, but without any proper claim to the title.

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tance of Patras (q. v.), he used every effort to cause the siege of that place to be pushed with vigor, and visited the camp to animate the soldiers and unite the leaders. While he was thus engaged, the Turks sallied out and surprised the Greeks. Mavrocordato narrowly escaped, and lost his manuscript history of the invasion of Europe by the Turks-a work which his access to documents in Constantinople rendered extremely valuable, The general assembly of Greece convened at Epidaurus, in December, 1821, and chose Mavrocordato their president. A committee, consisting of the president, Theodore Negris, archbishop Germanos, Caradja and Colletti, was appointed to draft a constitution, which was reported and accepted at the beginning of the new year (1822), and Mavrocordato was elected president of the executive body. (See Greece, Revolution of.) The exertions of Mavrocordato to introduce order into the civil and military administration, and his conduct at Missolonghi (q. v.), are related in the article on the Greek revolution above referred to. In 1823, the military party had gained the ascendency in the national assembly, and Mavromichalis was chosen president of the executive body, to which Mavrocordato, for the sake of preserving order, accepted the place of chief secretary. On the departure of Colocotroni for the army, Mavrocordato was chosen president of the senate, on hearing of which, the former immediately hastened back, at the head of a body of troops, vowing vengeance on the senate and Mavrocordato. The latter was, in consequence, obliged to flee, and he retired to Hydra. Here he exerted himself to induce the Hydriot navarchs to despatch a fleet to the relief of Missolonghi; and having been himself invested with the command of Western Greece, he effected that purpose. In January, 1824, lord Byron arrived in Greece, and found an efficient and ready friend in Mavrocordato, in opposition to the views of Stanhope. In 1825, Mavrocordato was made secretary of foreign affairs, and soon recovered his former ascendency in the government. Conduriottis, who was then president, chose him for his military counsellor on the expedition against Ibrahim Pacha, and although the result was unfavorable, yet Mavrocordato showed himself an active and able commander. But the fall of Navarino afforded an opportunity of excluding him from the administration, and a commission to regulate the government was appointed by the national assembly.

He has not since taken an active part in public affairs.

MAVROMICHALIS, Petro (often called Petro Bey), at the beginning of the Greek revolution, was bey or governor of Maina, the Turks having been accustomed to appoint a Greek to that post, to collect the revenues, because the inhabitants would not submit to the direct government of Mussulmans. His influence was such among the Mainots that he might have prevented them from joining the revolt, and thus have retained a lucrative situation; but on the first symptoms of resistance, he hastened to join his countrymen, and his subsequent exertions, the generous sacrifices of himself and his family, the heroic courage and death of his sons and relations, entitle him to a respect, of which even his ignorance and narrow policy in government ought not to deprive him. In 1822, he contributed essentially to the relief of Missolonghi, and, in 1826, on the change of administration, which threw out Mavrocordato and his party, Mavromichalis was a member of the commission of government then established. His son George Mavromichalis was a member of the new governing commission, which was formed in 1827, on the dissolution of the former. He had commanded at Navarino, and displayed the courage characteristic of the family at the siege of that place. Joannes, his youngest son, a brave and meritorious young man, fell at Navarino, in 1825. Another, Constantine, fell before Modon, in 1821, having too far outstripped his men in pursuit of the enemy. (See Greece, Revolution of.)

MAXEN; a village in the circle of Meissen, kingdom of Saxony, famous for the surrender of the Prussian general Fink, with 12,000 men, to the Austrian general Daun, Nov. 21, 1759, in the seven years'

war.

MAXIMIANUS, Herculius; the colleague of Diocletian. (See Diocletian.)

MAXIMILIAN I, emperor of Germany, son and successor of Fre.leric III, born in 1459, married, in 1477, Mary of Burgundy, heiress of duke Charles the Bold, the sou of which marriage (the arch-duke Philip) was the father of Charles V and Ferdinand I. Maximilian was elected king of the Romans, in 1486, and ascended the imperial throne in 1493, under very unfavorable circumstances. Germany, under the reign of his predecessor, had become distracted and feeble. Maximilian's marriage had, indeed, brought the territories of Charles to the house of Austria, but he

had been unable to maintain them against Louis XI (q. v.), who had stripped him of Artois, Flanders, and the duchy of Burgundy, while Charles VIII obtained the hand of Anne of Brittany, whom Maximilian had married by proxy. In 1494, the latter was married, a second time, to Bianca Sforza of Milan. Maximilian was enterprising, politic, brave, and of a noble and generous temper; yet his best plans often failed through his excessive ardor and his want of perseverance, and the miserable administration of his finances often deprived him of the fruits of his most fortunate enterprises. In 1493, he defeated the Turks, who had invaded the empire, and, during the remainder of his life, he was able to repel them from his hereditary territories; but he could not prevent the separation of Switzerland (q. v.) from the German empire, in 1498 and 1499. His plans for limiting the power of Louis XII in Italy, and compelling him to renounce his claims on Milan, involved him in perpetual wars, without securing to him the possession of Milan. Not less unsuccessful was the league of Cambray against Venice, which he concluded (1508) with the pope, Spain, France, Mantua and Modena. (See League.) Maximilian afterwards took the field against France, and, for the purpose of raising money, ceded Verona to the Venetian republic for 200,000 ducats. His measures in the domestic affairs of the German empire, which, for 300 years, had been the theatre of barbarism and anarchy, were more creditable. What his predecessors had so long vainly attempted, Maximilian successfully accomplished. In 1495, he had put an end to internal troubles and violence, by the perpetual peace of the empire, decreed by the diet of Worms. (See Germany, History of) To supply the defects of the German laws and prevent the gross abuses of justice, he adopted, at the same diet, the Roman and canon laws, as subsidiary authorities, in the decision of differences, and instituted the imperial chamber (see Chamber, Imperial), as the supreme tribunal of the empire. "He put a stop to the monstrous abuses of the Westphalian Femgerichte, although he was unable entirely to abolish those secret tribunals. (See Feme.) The institution of the German circles, which were intended to secure internal peace and safety, originated from him, as did many other useful institutions for the improvement of the government, and the promotion of science and art. Maximilian was himself a poet,

and was the author of a circumstantial but romantic account of his own life, first published in 1775, under the title Der weiss Kunig, by M. Treitzsaurwein (his private secretary), with Wood-cuts by Hanns Burgmair. He was, for a long time, considered the author of the Theuerdank (q. v.), of which he is the hero; but his secretary Pfinzing is now known to have been the writer. Maximilian died in 1519, and was succeeded by Charles V. MAXIMILIAN II, German emperor, son of Ferdinand I, born at Vienna (1527), was chosen king of the Romans in 1562, and succeeded his father in the imperial dignity in 1564. He was a pattern of a wise, prudent and good prince. Although he did not join the Lutherans, yet he favored some of their opinions, and granted to his subjects, in his hereditary dominions, a greater religious freedom than they had previously enjoyed. His toleration was extended to all his territories, and led him to promote the religious peace of 1566. Soliman II, the Turkish sultan, made war upon him, in support of the claims of John Sigismund, prince of Transylvania, to Hungary, but the death of the sultan put an end to the war in 1567, his successor, Selim, having agreed to a truce of eight years. The latter renewed the war in 1576, in which year Maximilian died. He left two daughters and six sons, the eldest of whom (Rodolph) succeeded him, not only as emperor, but also in the Austrian hereditary estates. (See Austria.)

MAXIMILIAN THE GREAT; elector of Bavaria. (See Bavaria.)

MAXIMILIAN I, Joseph, late king of Bavaria, was born May 27, 1756, in Schwetzingen, a village not far from Manheim. His father was the palatine Frederic, Austrian field-marshal. In 1777, Maximilian was made colonel of a French regiment in Strasburg. In 1795, his brother Charles died, and he became duke of Deuxponts. In 1799, when the Sulzbach palatine line became extinct by the death of the elector Charles Theodore, the succession passed to the line of Deuxponts. Thus Maximilian became elector. By the peace of Presburg (1805), he became king. (See Bavaria.) In 1818, he gave a constitution to his kingdom, after having improved it in many respects. He died Oct. 13, 1825. Maximilian, who, when young, little expected to rule over Bavaria, retained always the frankness of a soldier. He had a good heart, and was beloved by his subjects. Education, agriculture, the finances, and the administration in general,