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MANSFIELD-MANTELETS.

general in 1754, and as chief-justice of the king's bench in 1756; soon after which he was created baron Murray, of Mansfield. For a few months, in 1757, he held the office of chancellor of the exchequer. During that interval, he effected a coalition of parties, which led to the administration of Pitt, afterwards lord Chatham. The same year, he declined the offer of the great seal, as he did twice afterwards. A change of parties in the cabinet, in 1765, which introduced into office the marquis of Rockingham and his friends, for awhile threw lord Mansfield into the ranks of the opposition. The year 1770 was memorable for attacks on his character in a judicial capacity, in both houses of parliament, which, however, led to no serious result. On the trial of Woodfall, for publishing Junius's Letters, and on some other occasions, he showed himself the zealous supporter of government. In October, 1776, he was advanced to the dignity of an earl of Great Britain. During the riots in London, June, 1780, his house was attacked by the Anti-Catholic mob, and his valuable collection of books and manuscripts fell a sacrifice to the fury of the multitude, by whom the mansion was burnt to the ground. He continued for some years longer to exercise his judicial functions. In 1788, he resigned his office of chiefjustice; and the remainder of his life was spent in retirement, principally at his seat at Caen-wood, near Hampstead. He died March 20, 1793. As a politician, lord Mansfield was a favorer of high maxims of government in general; and in the law of libel, he supported the opinion, that the jury is the judge of the fact only, and not of the law. He was, however, an enemy to violent exertion of power, as well as a friend to religious toleration. On various occasions, he opposed vexatious prosecutions, under intolerant laws, and voted in favor of the bill for the relief of the Roman Catholics. His ideas of legislation were, on many points, liberal. As an orator, he display. ed more of persuasive elegance than of boldness and force; but he might fairly have contested the palm of eloquence with any of his contemporaries, except lord Chatham. In argument he was acute. Lord Ashburton used to say, that when he was wrong, the faults of his reasoning were not easily detected; and when he was right, he was irresistible. His fame rests chiefly on his conduct as a judge. He would not accept of the legal compensation to which he was entitled

for the destruction of his property in 1780. There is a life of him by Holliday (4to., 1797), and by Th. Roscoe, in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia.

MANSLAUGHTER. (See Homicide.)

MANSO, John Caspar Frederic, born in the duchy of Gotha, May 26, 1759, and died June 6, 1826, in Breslau, where he had been, since 1790, pro-rector, and since 1793, rector of the Mary Magdalen gymnasium. He wrote a good deal in prose and poetry, but his most important works are, History of the Prussian State since the Peace of Hubertsburg (Frankfort on the Maine, 1819 et seq., 3 vols.), and a History of the Ostrogothic Empire in Italy (Breslau, 1824), both in German. MANTCHOOS, or MANTCHEWS. Mandshures.)

(See

MANTEGNA, Andrew, one of the most celebrated of the early painters, was born at Padua, in 1431. His master, Squarcione, was induced by the talents which he displayed to adopt him as a son. The youth employed himself principally in drawing from antiques, and, at the age of 16, painted a picture for the grand altar in the church of St. Sophia, at Padua. Mantegna soon after entered the service of Lodovico Gonzaga, at Mantua, where he opened a school. Here he painted his great picture, the Triumph of Julius Cæsar, for the exhibition of which a palace was erected in Mantua. It consists of several pictures, which have since been transferred to Hampton court. Gonzaga conferred on him the honor of knighthood in reward for his merit. Innocent VIII invited the artist to Rome, to paint in the Belvedere, and he afterwards executed a number of capital works. One of the latest and best was the Madonna della Victoria, now in the Louvre at Paris, in which Giovanni Francesco Gonzaga is seen returning thanks for the victory gained by him over the forces of Charles VIII (1496). There are several other of his works in the Louvre, and an Annunciation in the Dresden gallery. He died at Mantua in 1506. Mantegna excelled in perspective, which was then a rare merit. His manner was stiff and dry, and his imitation of the ancient is everywhere manifest. - His son, Francesco, was also a painter.

MANTELETS, in the art of war ; a kind of movable parapets, made of planks about three inches thick, nailed one over another, to the height of almost six feet, generally cased with tin, and set upon little wheels, so that in a siege they may be driven before the pioneers, and serve

MANTELETS-MANTUA.

as blinds to shelter them from the enemy's small shot.

MANTINEA; one of the most ancient, and, with Tegea, most important cities of Arcadia, on the frontier of Argolis, on the little river Ophis. The modern Tripolizza (q. v.) is built of the ruins of the ancient cities of Megalopolis, Tegea, Mantinea and Pallantium. Mantinea was known for its wealth, and famous for the battles fought near it, one B. C. 418, in the 14th year of the Peloponnesian war, the result of which battle was, that Argos seceded from Athens, and joined Sparta; the other, fought B. C. 363, by Epaminondas, against the Peloponnesians. Epaminondas (q. v.) was victorious, but fell. A third battle was fought near Mantinea, B. C. 206, between Machanides, tyrant of Lacedæmon and Philopomen, general of the Achæan league. The latter was victorious, and slew the tyrant with his own hand.

MANTIS. Few of the insect tribe have attracted more attention than these curious productions of nature, from their singular forms, and still more singular habits. From the manner in which they stretch out their fore legs, they have acquired the reputation of diviners, and because they often rest on their hind legs, folding the anterior pair over their breast, the superstitious have supposed them in the act of prayer; hence they are called, in Languedoc, where they are common, by the name of prie-dieu. The genus mantis has been separated, by modern entomologists, into several distinct genera, viz. mantis, spectrum, phasma and phyllium. The first of these contains the celebrated Soothsayer (M. religiosa), which, as has been said, is vulgarly considered as possessing miraculous powers. This superstition appears to extend to almost every part of the world in which these insects are found. The Turks regard them as under the especial protection of Allah, and the Hottentots pay divine honors to them. The dry leaf mantis (phyllium siccifolia), in its shape and color, is remarkable, invariably suggesting the idea of a dry and withered leaf. Their manners, also, in addition to their structure, aid in the delusion. They often remain on trees, for hours, without motion; then, suddenly springing into the air, appear to be blown about like dry leaves. The Indians of South America, where these insects are very common, believe that they really are at tached to the tree at first, and that when they have arrived at maturity, they loosen themselves, and crawl or fly away. In

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some parts of the East Indies, a species of mantis is kept, like game cocks, for the purpose of fighting, which they do with great ferocity.

MANTISSA. (See Logarithms.)

1

MANTUA ; a delegation of Austrian Italy, in the government of Milan, lying on the north of the duchies of Modena and Parma; population, 239,436; square miles, 886. The Po passes through it, and it is also watered by the Oglio, Mincio, Secchia, &c. The surface is very level; the soil of great fertility; the principal product grain; others rice, hemp, flax, fruit and vines. The late duchy of Mantua, or the Mantuan, was of larger extent than the present province. It was annexed to the Cisalpine republic (q. v.) in 1797, and formed a department of the kingdom of Italy until 1814, when it was ceded to Austria, as a part of the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. (See Lombardy.)

MANTUA (Italian, Mantova); a city of Austrian Italy, an episcopal see, and capital of a delegation, formerly a duchy of the same name; 70 miles S. W. of Venice, 70 S. E. of Milan; lon. 10° 46′ E.; lat. 45° 9 N.; population, 25,000, among which are about 2000 Jews. It is situated on two islands formed by the expansion of the waters of the Mincio, one about a mile square, the other a little more than half that size: on this is the most closely built part of the city. The extensive suburb of Cerese is on the main land. Mantua is well fortified, and is, by nature and art, one of the strongest places in Europe. Most of the streets are broad, regular and well paved; the houses of stone, and generally well built; and the public squares spacious and elegant. It contains a magnificent cathedral, numerous churches, convents and hospitals, a public library, an academy of arts and sciences, a gallery of antiquities, and several valuable collections of paintings. Other public objects of interest are the palaces of justice, of Gonzaga, and of T, so called from its form; the church of St. Andrew; the Corte, with its halls; the famous bust of Virgil; and the buildings of the university, which was founded here in 1625. The silk manufactures were formerly flourishing, and are still considerable; those of leather and woollen are also important. In the summer and autumn, the city is unhealthy, on account of the marshes in its neighborhood. (See Mal' Aria.) It is a place of great antiquity, said to be older than Rome, and, a century ago, contained about 50,000 inhabi

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MANTUA-MANUMISSION.

tants. Virgil was born at Andes (now Pietola), in the vicinity.

council of state, colonial legislation, public instruction, &c., he maintained the rights MANUEL, Jacques Antoine, one of the of the nation, and defended the charter in most eloquent and intrepid defenders of spite of the menaces, murmurs, interrupFrench liberty, was born in 1775, at Bar- tions and calumnies of the royalist faction. celonette, in the department of the Lower Calm and immovable, yet fervid and arAlps, and was educated at the college of dent, his courage and eloquence were alNimes. He entered as a volunteer in one ways victorious over the violence of his of the battalions of the requisition in 1793, enemies. During the new elections, in and rose to the rank of captain. After 1823, the greatest efforts were made to the peace of Campo-Formio, he quitted prevent his being chosen, and after the the army, studied law, was admitted to election a plan was formed for excluding the bar at Aix, and soon acquired a high_him, as unworthy of a seat. This being reputation for talent. In 1815, he was elected to the chamber of deputies which was convoked by Napoleon, and after the abdication of that monarch, M. Manuel strenuously contended for the rights of the young Napoleon. He also moved a spirited protest against the force which was used by the allies to bring about the restoration of the Bourbons. This was, of course, an unpardonable crime, and an opportunity was found to display, at least, the disposition for punishing him. In 1815, he settled at Paris, and in the following year, applied for admission to the Paris bar, that he might be entitled to plead in the courts. The council of discipline, as it is called, consulted the members of the bar at Aix as to their opinion of his character, in the hope of finding something against him; but, though their answer was favorable, the council refused to comply with his request. This refusal was repeated in 1816. In 1818, he was elected a member of the chamber of deputies by three departments, and became one of the most formidable opponents of the ministers, speaking extemporaneously with great facility-a talent possessed by few of the French deputies. On the opening of the budget in 1819, he delivered a speech which produced a very lively sensation, and was printed by order of the chamber. "Our political organization," said he, "is at once deficient in its municipal system, which is its natural basis; in the national guard, which must be our protection in peace, our defence in war; in the jury, without which the liberty of the press is an empty shadow; and in the responsibility of officers, which is the safeguard of all rights." In the ensuing sessions, he continued, in a series of bold and eloquent speeches, to oppose the arbitrary measures which then characterized the policy of the French government. On the exclusion of Grégoire (q. v.), on the bills for suspending the liberty of person and of the press, on the laws of election, on the reform of the jury, the organization of the

found impracticable, his enemies determined to effect his expulsion, and a pretext was found in his first speech of the session, on the question of the Spanish war. In the outset he was called to order; the president pronounced him in order; he was again interrupted by loud cries; he was accused of defending regicide; his expulsion was demanded; he was prevented from explaining or proceeding, and the president, unable to restore order, was obliged to adjourn the chamber. The next day, Labourdonnaye moved his expulsion; Manuel defended himself, in an eloquent speech, from the charge brought against him. The motion was sustained and referred to March 3; on that day, Manuel protested against the power of the chamber to expel a representative of the nation, but his expulsion was voted by a majority. On the next day, he again took his seat, and, being required by the president to withdraw, replied that he should yield only to force. The session was then suspended for an hour, the members of the left side remaining in their seats. In this interval the huissier (sergeant at arms) read to him an order of the president requiring him to leave the hall; but his reply was as before, "I shall yield only to force." The huissier called in a detachment of the national guard, which refused to act; and a body of the gendarmerie was introduced. On being directed by the commanding officer to retire, he refused, and the order was issued to the gendarmes to arrest him. As they approached, he rose and expressed himself ready to follow them, the members present accompanying him. Manuel was again chosen to the chamber in 1824. He died in 1827, and was buried in the Père Lachaise, some obstacles which were interposed to the solemnization of his obsequies being surmounted by the firmness and prudence of his friends.

MANUMISSION, among the Romans; the solemn ceremony by which a slave was emancipated. (See Freedman.) Con

MANUMISSION--MANURES.

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stantine the Great, after his conversion, is, however, the most universal mineral transferred to the Christian church all such manure; but chemists are not agreed as solemn ceremonies of the heathen. Thus to the manner in which it acts on vegetahe allowed the Christian masters to tion. It is strewed, in the state of fine emancipate their slaves before the altar on powder, over crops, when the leaves are festival days, and especially at Easter, by in full vigor towards the latter end of placing the deed of emancipation on the April, or the beginning of May. It is very head of the freedman in the presence of extensively employed in the Northern the congregation. States of this country; and is found to be particularly favorable to crops of rye and clover. Common manure consists of the remains of organized bodies, of every description, whether animal or vegetable, in a state of decomposition (i. e. resolving itself into those primitive elements which can reënter into the vegetable system). The principal result of this decomposition is carbonic acid, which, becoming dissolved in water, finds its entrance into the plant by the pores in the fibres of the roots, and, being every where distributed through the vegetable tissue, deposits its carbon for the growth of the plant, while its oxygen escapes into the atmosphere, through the pores of the leaves. Manure which has not completely undergone the process of fermentation, so that the straw is not yet wholly decomposed, is best adapted to strong, compact soils; the tubular remnants of straw answer the purpose of so many little props to support the earth, and afford a passage for the air, thus rendering the soil lighter; besides, the completion of the fermentation taking place after the manure is buried in the soil, has the advantage of raising the temperature. Those bodies which are subject to the most rapid decomposition, are most employed for manure. Of this description are animal manures in general, which require no chemical preparation to fit them for the soil. The great object of the farmer is to blend them with the earthy constituents, in a proper state of division, and to prevent their too rapid fermentation. In maritime districts, fish, when sufficiently abundant, are sometimes used to manure the land. They afford a powerful manure, and cannot be ploughed in too fresh, though the quantity should be limited. Mr. Young records an experiment, in which herrings, spread over a field, and ploughed in for wheat, produced so rank a crop, that it was entirely laid before harvest. During the putrefaction of urine, the greatest part of the soluble animal matter that it contains is destroyed; it should, consequently, be used as fresh as possible; but if not mixed with solid matter, it should be diluted with water, as, when pure, it contains too large a quantity of animal matter to form

MANURES; vegetable, animal and mineral matters, introduced into the soil, to accelerate vegetation and increase the production of crops. If the soil to be improved be too stiff, from excess of clay, it will require sand; if too loose, from excess of sand, it will be benefited by clay; but, when sand is mixed with argillaceous soil, the latter must be broken and pulverized, which may be effected by exposing it to the frost, and afterwards drying it. Marl is a natural compound earth, used with great success in the melioration of soils. It consists of a mixture of clay and lime, sometimes containing a little silica and bitumen. Those varieties of it which contain more clay than lime, are advantageous for a dry, sandy soil; while calcareous marl, or that in which the lime predominates, is suited to an argillaceous soil. The great advantage of marl is, that it dilates, cracks, and is reduced to powder, by exposure to moisture and air. Marl in masses would be totally useless on the ground; yet it is necessary to begin by laying it on the ground in heaps; for the more it is heaped, the more it dilates, splits, and crumbles to dust; in which state it is fit to spread upon the ground. Marl is sometimes formed into a compost with common manure, before it is laid on the soil; in this state, however, it should be applied sparingly at a time, and renewed frequently. It operates by subdividing the soil, and hastening decomposition; its calcareous particles disorganizing all animal or vegetable bodies, by resolving them into their simple elements, in which state they combine with oxygen, and facilitating this union. The best time for marling is the autumn. Quick-lime, and especially that derived from fossil, or living shells, is another excellent means of amending soils. It is particularly adapted to cold, marshy soils, abounding in organic matters, as it assists powerfully in the conversion of animal and vegetable substances into nourishment for plants. Ashes are very beneficial to the soil, by attracting moisture from the atmosphere, in consequence of the alkali they contain, and thus accelerating vegetation. Gypsum

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a proper fluid nourishment for absorption by the roots of plants. Amongst excrementitious solid substances, one of the most powerful is the dung of birds that feed on animal food, particularly the dung of sea-birds. The guano, which is used to a great extent in South America, and which is the manure that fertilizes the sterile plains of Peru, is a production of this kind. It contains a fourth part of its weight of uric acid, partly saturated with ammonia, and partly with potash; some phosphoric acid, combined with the bases, and likewise with lime; small quantities of sulphate and muriate of potash; a little fatty matter; and some quartzose sand. Night-soil, it is well known, is a very powerful manure, and very liable to decompose. Its disagreeable smell may be destroyed by mixing with quick-lime, after which, if exposed to the atmosphere in thin layers, in fine weather, it speedily dries, is easily pulverized, and, in this state, may be used in the same manner as rape-cake, and delivered into the furrow with the seed. The Chinese, who have more practical knowledge of the use and application of manure than any other people existing, mix their night-soil with one third of its weight of a fat marl, make it into cakes, and dry it by exposure to the sun. In this state it is free from any disagreeable smell, and forms a common article of commerce of the empire. After nightsoil, pigeons' dung comes next in order as to fertilizing power. If the pure dung of cattle is to be used as manure, like the other species of dung which have been mentioned, there seems no reason why it should be made to ferment, except in the soil; or if suffered to ferment, it should be only in a very slight degree. A slight, incipient fermentation is, undoubtedly, of use in the dunghills; for, by means of it, a disposition is brought on, in the woody fibre, to decay and dissolve, when it is carried to the land, or ploughed into the soil; and woody fibre is always in great excess in the refuse of the farm. Too great a degree of fermentation is, however, very prejudicial; and it is better that there should be no fermentation at all before the manure is used, than that it should be carried too far. In cases where farm-yard dung cannot be immediately applied to crops, the destructive fermentation of it should be prevented, very carefully, by defending the surface of it, as much as possible, from the oxygen of the atmosphere; a compact marl, or a tenacious clay, offers the best protection against the air; but before the dung is covered over,

or, as it were, sealed up, it should be dried as much as possible. If the dung is found to heat at any time, it should be turned over, and cooled by exposure to air. When a thermometer, plunged into it, does not rise above 100° Fahr., there is little danger of much aëriform matter flying off; if the temperature is above that point, the dung will require to be immediately spread open. Also, when a piece of paper, moistened in muriatic acid, held over the steams arising from a dunghill, gives dense white fumes, it is a certain test that the decomposition is going too far; for this indicates that volatile alkali is disengaged. The situation in which dung is kept by farmers, is often very injudicious, it frequently being exposed to the direct influence of the sun; whereas it should always be kept under sheds, or, at least, on the north side of a wall. Less perishable substances, of animal origin, are sometimes used as manure, such as horn, hair, feathers, and bones; but, owing to their dry nature, they require a longer period for their decomposition. They are not calculated for annual harvests, but to fructify the soil for a produce of much longer duration, such as that of olive-trees and of vineyards. Vegetable manure does not undergo fermentation previous to being buried in the soil. Òf this kind of manure, green crops, such as clover, lupins and buckwheat, which are ploughed into the soil, are the best, since they contain a considerable quantity of water, and, when buried, serve to lighten the soil previous to decomposition. It is especially adapted to hot climates. Rape-cake, which is used with great success as a manure, contains a large quantity of mucilage, some albuminous matter, and a small quantity of oil. It should be used recent, and kept as dry as possible, before it is applied. It forms an excellent dressing for turnip crops, and is most economically applied by being thrown into the soil at the same time with the seed. Sea-weeds, consisting of different species of fuci, algae and conferva, are much used as a manure, on the sea-coasts of Britain, Ireland and the U. States. This manure is more transient in its effects, and does not last for more than a single crop, which is easily accounted for, from the large quantity of water, or the elements of water, which it contains. It decays without producing heat, when exposed to the atmosphere, and seems, as it were, to melt down, and dissolve away. It should be used as fresh as it can be procured, and not suffered to lie in heaps, exposed to the air, for six months or a

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