cessary to add a little carbonaceous matter, as sugar, to abstract a portion of oxygen from the peroxide. The principal salt is the sulphate of manganese, which may be thus prepared: the acid acts very slowly on the metal itself; if diluted, however, it acts more quickly, hydrogen gas being disengaged, of a fetid smell. The solution, when concentrated, is of a rose color; when obtained neutral, it affords, on evaporation, granular crystals of a reddish color, transparent and soluble. Its taste is styptic and bitter, and it is very soluble in hot water. Nitrate of manganese may be formed from the carbonate. It is very soluble, and difficult to crystallize. It may also be formed by making the acid act on a mixture of peroxide of manganese and sugar or gum; the vegetable substance serving to reduce the manganese to a minimum of oxidizement, while much carbonic acid is evolved. The muriatic acid is equally incapable of combining directly with the black oxide, but according to the usual law, it de-oxidates it: one part of the muriatic acid is decomposed; its hydrogen combines with the excess of oxygen of the black oxide, to form water; the chlorine, the other element of this portion of the acid, is evolved; and the rest of the muriatic acid unites with the protoxide of manganese, to form the muriate. The solution of muriate of manganese is of a rose color when concentrated, and affords, by evaporation, small crystals of a pale rose color, which are four-sided tables; they are deliquescent, very soluble in water, and, by a redheat, are converted into a red chloride. Carbonate and phosphate of manganese may be formed by double decomposition, being thrown down in the state of insoluble precipitates. The salts of manganese suffer decomposition from the alkalies, which precipitate the oxide: they are not decomposed, however, by the inflammables, or the other metals, which is a proof of the affinity of manganese to oxygen. Oxide of manganese combines with those earths capable of vitrification, and with their compounds, and communicates to the glasses which they form a violet tinge; it imparts the same color, also, to borax and other vitrifiable salts. When heated with these fluxes, by the blow-pipe, the color soon disappears in the interior flame, from de-oxidation, but appears again if a little nitre be added. Sulphuret of manganese was obtained by Berthier, by heating the sulphate in a charcoal crucible; it was of a gray color and crystalline appearance. Manganese, from its infusi

bility, does not combine readily with many of the metals. It shows, however, considerable affinity to iron, occurring frequently combined with it in nature. It is contained, also, in those ores of iron which are best adapted to the fabrication of steel, and is supposed to improve the quality of steel. Gold and iron are rendered more fusible by a due addition of manganese; and the latter metal is rendered more ductile. Copper becomes less fusible, and is rendered whiter, but of a color subject to tarnish. Manganese is applied to no use in its metallic form. The black oxide is employed by the chemist in preparing oxygen and chlorine gases. It has long been used in the art of glass-making, to counteract the green tinge communicated by the iron contained in the materials-an effect which it produces by yielding oxygen to the oxide of iron, and bringing it to a high degree of oxidation; in a larger quantity added to glass, it gives a purple color. It is also used to give a black color to earthen ware.-Ores of Manganese. 1. Gray manganese ore is found in prismatic crystals, whose primary form may be considered as a right rhombic prism of 100° and 80°. It also cleaves parallel with both the diagonals of this prism. The crystals are usually slender and much striated, longitudinally. Fracture uneven; lustre metallic; color dark steelgray to iron-black; streak brownishblack; opaque; brittle; hardness about that of limestone; specific gravity, 4.626; it also occurs in twin crystals, in reniform, botryoidal and other imitative shapes, with a surface generally rough and drusy; composition columnar, of various sizes of individuals, often forming a second granular composition. In the massive varieties, the granular or columnar composition often becomes impalpable, in which cases the fracture is earthy. Gray manganese ore has been divided into several sub-species, chiefly in consequence of its mechanical composition. Radiated gray manganese ore comprises long acicular, or reed-like prisms, and such massive varieties as consist of columnar particles of composition, while the foliated one refers to short prisms and granular compositions. Compact gray manganese ore contains varieties composed of impalpable granular individuals, and earthy gray manganese ore, such as have lost their coherence, and appear in the state of an earthy powder. The composition of some varieties belonging to this species, has been found by Klaproth to be

248

ily dissolved in nitric acid, without effervescence, and consists of oxide of iron, 31.00; oxide of manganese, 42.00; and phosphoric acid, 27.00. It has hitherto been found only at Limoges in France, and at Washington in Connecticut.-6. Carbonate of Manganese is found crystallized in rhomboids of 106° 51', and massive. Fracture uneven, imperfect conchoidal; lustre vitreous, inclining to pearly; color various shades of rose-red, partly inclining to brown; brittle; hardness but little above that of calcareous spar; specific gravity, 3.59; the massive varieties present globular and botryoidal shapes; composition granular, sometimes small, and even impalpable; it consists of oxide of manganese, 54.60; carbonic acid, 33.75; oxide of iron, 1.87; silica, 4.37; lime, 2.50. It effervesces rather briskly in nitric acid; before the blow-pipe, its color is changed into gray, brown and black, and it decrepitates strongly, but is infusible without addition. It is found in the Saxon mines in the neighborhood of Friberg; also at Nagyag in Transylvania. (For an account of the red and reddish-brown siliceous ores of manganese, see Silicate of Manganese.)

MANGEL-WURZEL; a kind of beet, which does not afford fodder of as good quality, nor in such abundance, as was supposed at the time of its introduction; but it is valuable from its size and hardy nature. The leaves may be eaten as a substitute for spinach, and continue in season long after that plant has withered. In some parts of Germany, the farmers prefer it, for their cattle, to most vegetables; and, besides, it can be obtained at the latter part of the season, when green fodder is much wanted.

MANGO; a celebrated fruit, now produced in most of the tropical parts of the globe. It is a native of India, and was introduced into Jamaica in the year 1782. The taste is delicious, slightly acid, and yields only to the mangosteen. The tree is allied to the sumach, and belongs to the natural order terebinthacea. It attains the height of 30 or 40 feet, has a rapid growth, and is very productive. The leaves are simple, alternate, lanceolate, coriaceous, smooth and entire. The flowers are inconspicuous, reddish, and disposed in large terminal panicles. The fruit is kidney-shaped, subject, however, to a good deal of variation in size, form and color, and contains a large, flattened stone. More than 80 varieties of mango are cultivated, some of which are very beautiful, and diffuse a delightful perfume.

MANGOSTEEN. This far-famed fruit is the product of a middling-sized and beautiful tree, the garcinia mangostana of botanists, and was originally brought from the Molucca islands, but is now cultivated in many parts of the East Indies. The leaves are large, opposite, smooth, coriaceous and entire: the flowers are terminal and solitary, and of a deep-red color: the fruit is shaped like, and about as large as, an orange, divided internally into several cells, each containing a single seed. It belongs to the guttifera, a natural family, which is not found beyond the tropics. Itis, on all hands, admitted to be the most delicious, as well as the most wholesome, of all known fruits, and yet we have not heard of its introduction into any part of inter-tropical America, although great pains have been taken to transport thither so many of the productions of the East.

MANGROVE (rhizophora); a genus of plants, consisting of trees or shrubs, which grow in tropical countries, along the borders of the sea, in places which are liable to be overflowed by the salt water, even as far as low water mark. Their branches are long, hang down towards the earth, and, when they have reached it, take root, and produce new trunks. In this manner, immense and almost impenetrable forests are formed, which are filled with vast numbers of crabs, aquatic birds, moschetoes, and also oysters, which attach themselves to the branches. The leaves are simple, opposite and entire. The seeds are remarkable for throwing out roots, which vegetate among the branches of the trees, while yet adhering to the foot-stalk. The R. mangle is found in Florida, nearly as far north as the 30th parallel of latitude. This genus, and an allied one, form a natural family by themselves.

MANHEIM; a city of Baden, capital of the circle of the Neckar, at the conflux of the Neckar with the Rhine; 34 miles N. of Carlsruhe; lon. 8° 28′ E.; lat. 49° 29′N.; population, 21,500. In 1606, it was chosen by the elector palatine for the site of a town, being, before, a petty village, with a castle. In 1719, it became the resi dence of the elector of the Palatinate and his court, and so continued till 1777. In 1802, it was annexed to Baden. It contains a very large palace, is the second residence of the grand-duke, and the seat of the supreme court of appeal for the grand-duchy. Manheim presents a fine view from a distance. It is divided into four quarters, and is of an oval form. It is built with the greatest regularity; the streets are wide, straight, well paved, the

houses uniform and neat, and the public buildings large and handsome; and it is one of the finest towns in Germany. It contains Lutheran, Reformed and Catholic churches, a synagogue, and three hospitals. The palace contains a gallery of paintings, cabinet of antiquities, and a library of 60,000 volumes. The observatory is a noble building, with a curious tower 108 feet high. The lyceum, or gymnasium, for the education of the upper classes, is superintended by able in

structers.

MANIA; a Roman spectre, the mother of the Manes, to whom, in the most ancient times, human sacrifices, particularly of children, were offered. This took place as late as the time of Tarquinius Superbus. In subsequent times, onions and poppy-heads were sacrificed instead of children. Little figures, stuffed with wool, were hung outside the house, to appease the Mania; also clews of yarn, equal in number to the slaves, to protect them.

MANIA. (See Mental Derangement.) MANICHEES, OF MANICHEANS. Of the founder of this sect-whom the Orientals called Mani, the fathers of the church, Manes, terming likewise his adherents Manichees-history contains two different accounts. The older account, contained in the historians of the Christian church, seems far more credible than the Arabic version of the tenth century, which makes him an accomplished magician, a skilful painter, and a Christian priest, but says nothing particularly new respecting him. According to the first account, he became, when a boy, a slave, under the name of Cubricus, to a wealthy widow in Persia, at whose house he met with the four books of Scythianus, an Egyptian enthusiast, of whom nothing more is known, which had been left her by his scholar Terebinthus, or Buddas, entitled Mysteries, Chapters, Gospel (Artzeng) and Treasury. By the perusal of these books, he was led to his doctrine of the world and of spirits, framed from the dualistic ideas of the Chaldæans, together with the systems of the Gnostics. (See Gnostics.) Being left the heir of his mistress at her death, he assumed the name of Mani, and sought to rear, like Mohammed, on the foundation of these books, a new religious philosophy, for which he acquired disciples. The reputation of his wisdom caused him to be invited to the court of Sapor, king of Persia, where he was imprisoned, because the sick son of this king had died under his care. His scholars brought him information of the obstacles which Christianity had thrown in the

249

way of his doctrines. The reading of the Holy Scriptures of the Christians now suggested to him the idea that he was called to the purification of Christianity from Jewish and hierarchical deformities, and to the diffusion of a mysterious doctrine, unrevealed by the apostles-nay, that he was the Comforter promised in the New Testament. Having escaped from prison, and collected new disciples at Arabion, a fortress on the frontiers of Mesopotamia, he sought, under the name of an apostle of Christ, and, according to the Arabic narrative, favored by Sapor's successor, Hormizdas (Hormuz), A. D. 272, to convert the Christians in those regions to his doctrines. While engaged in these endeavors, he is said to have been twice overcome by Archilaus, a Christian bishop at Kaskar (Charra) in Mesopotamia, in two disputations; to have incurred again the suspicion of the Persian court, and, in the year 277, to have been executed (according to the Christian account, flayed alive), at the command of king Varacces (Vaharem). Proceeding on the ground of an eternal opposition of good and evil, mingling the philosophy of Zerduscht (Zoroaster) with his arbitrary versions of biblical doctrines, bis system possesses but little in common with Christianity. except the language. He assumes two principles, independent of each other; one of good-the God, without form, in the kingdom of light; and one of evilthe hyle, or devil, of colossal stature and human shape, in the darkness of matter; the former strengthened by two emanations, created in the beginning, the Son and the Spirit, and superior to the latter, both surrounded by innumerable similar æons, or elementary natures, proceeding from them, which dwell in the five elements, or spheres, that rise one over the other in the kingdom of good, viz. light, clear water, clear air, genial fire, and pure ether; and, in the kingdom of evil, darkness, or earth, troubled water, stormy air, consuming fire and smoke, from each of which proceed congenial creatures. During an internal war of the always discordant powers of darkness, the defeated party discovered, from the high mountains on the frontiers, the kingdom of light, hitherto unknown to the devil. In order to conquer it, the devil made peace with his species. The good God endeavored to subdue his enemies by means of artifice and love. The prince of darkness, having eventually been defeated in the contest, produced the first parents of the human race. The beings engendered from

this original stock consist of a body formed out of the corrupt matter of the kingdom of darkness, and of two souls, one of which is sensual and lustful, and owes its existence to the evil spirit; the other, rational and immortal, a particle of the divine light, which had been carried away in the contest, by the army of darkness, and immersed into the mass of malignant matter. The earth was created by God out of this corrupt mass of matter, in order to be a dwelling for the human race, that their captive souls might, by degrees, be delivered from their corporeal prisons, and their celestial elements extracted from the gross substance in which they were involved. With this view, God produced two beings from his own substance, Christ and the Holy Ghost; for the Manichæans held a consubstantial Trinity. Christ, or the glorious Intelligence, called by the Persians Mithras, subsisting in and by himself, and residing in the sun, appeared in due time among the Jews, clothed with the shadowy form of a human body, to disengage the rational soul from the corrupt body, and to conquer the violence of malignant matter, and he demonstrated his divine mission by stupendous miracles. This Savior was not man: all that the New Testament relates respecting the humanity of Jesus was merely appearance, even his death and resurrection; but his sufferings are emblems of the purification by self-denial, death and new life, necessary for corrupted men. His crucifixion, in particular, is an allegory of the torments of the soul, which is fastened to matter as to a cross. When the purposes of Christ were accomplished, he returned to his throne in the sun, appointing apostles to propagate his religion, and leaving his followers the promise of the Paraclete, or Comforter, who is Mani the Persian. Those souls who believe Jesus Christ to be the Son of God, renounce the worship of the God of the Jews, who is the prince of darkness, and obey the laws delivered by Christ, and illustrated by Mani, the Comforter, are gradually purified from the contagion of matter; and, their purification being completed, after having passed through two states of trial, by water and fire, first in the moon and then in the sun, their bodies return to their original mass (for the Manichæans derided the doctrine of the resurrection of bodies), and their souls ascend to the regions of light. But the souls of those who have neglected the salutary work of purification pass, after death, into the bodies of other animals, or natures, where they remain till they have

accomplished their probation. Some, however, more perverse and obstinate, are consigned to a severer course of trial, being delivered over, for a time, to the power of malignant aërial spirits, who torment them in various ways. After this, a fire shall break forth and consume the world, and the prince and powers of darkness shall return to their primitive seats of misery, in which they shall dwell for ever. Between these seats and the kingdom of light the souls of those not wholly purified keep eternal watch, that both may remain as they were from the beginning. With this system of religion, which was contained in the books of Scythianus and Mani's own treatises, letters and apocryphal writings, but, at present, exists only in the fragments found in the ancient authors, especially in St. Augustine against the Manichees, the moral system of this sect corresponds. It divides the Manichees into two classes: the elect are to abstain from wine, flesh, and all animal food, marriage and sexual indulgences, from music, the possession of earthly goods, and all luxury, as well as from war, labor, and doing injury to the vegetable world, and even from plucking fruits; are to kill no animals but vermin, and devote their life to pious contemplation. More was allowed the auditors, or more imperfect. By their labor, they had to support themselves and the elect; in marriage, must abstain from the procreation of children, and place their happiness in poverty. The head of all was Mani, with 12 disciples, among whom Thomas, Buddas and Acuas, from whom the Manichees were also called Acuanites, deserve mention. The Manichæan congregations were superintended by bishops, of whom Mani ordained 72; by elders and deacons, all from the class of the elect, in which there were also sainted virgins. These ecclesiastics had, however, merely the authority of teachers, the church government being democratically administered by the congregations. Temples, altars, images, victims, and other sensible aids of divine worship, were not allowed: their worship consisted of singing, prayers, the reading of their sacred books, and lecturing. The supper they celebrated without wine, and, like the primitive Christians, often delayed baptism to a mature age. Of the fasts and festivals of the Christians, they observed only that which commemorated the death of Jesus, and Sunday, the latter with strict fasting. In March, they celebrated the anniversary of the death of Mani (Berna), on which day a splendid pulpit, five steps