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either takes place no apparent effect, or the effects are inverted, viz. the positive effects are apparent in him, and the negative in the person magnetized. If the magnetizer undertakes the manipulation of a susceptible subject, he always feels a glow, and the sensation of a gentle flow from his palm, and particularly from the points of his fingers. If he covers his hands with silk gloves, or other electric bodies, he has not this latter feeling, and his operation is fruitless; but linen or leather gloves do not prevent the effect. After a successful operation, the magnetizer feels a general unpleasantness, a weakness in the digestive system, and, in general, a loss of power, in proportion to the susceptibility of the magnetized subject, and the duration or frequency of the operation. If the magnetizer, during the operation, is isolated with the magnetized subject by electrical bodies, his loss of power is less, but the effects which he produces are stronger.-2. Phenomena in the Person magnetized. The phenomena produced in the subject by a positive operation, are of a double kind; either they have reference to the general state of the body, are then not periodical, but last during the whole cure, and, therefore, may be considered as the general effects of magnetism; or they have reference only to particular activities of the organization. Of the former sort are, 1. a general awakening and strengthening of the vital powers in all parts of the body, without considerable excitement, as well in the systems of the nerves and muscles, the vascular and digestive system, as the organs of secretion; 2. a mild excitement over the whole surface of the body, by which every irregularity and local reaction is neutralized and the equilibrium restored; 3. a withdrawing of the heightened vital power from the suffering organs to others; 4. a diminution or total suppression of the excitement producing the morbid activity of the nerves. The magnetizer not only should have a stronger body than the person magnetized, but also a perfectly healthy one. He must have attained the maturity of his bodily powers, but must still be within the age of active life; the mind, too, must be sound and strong, in order to master the affections and passions, to have a living faith and a firm will, and thus to attain perfect control over this means of cure, as also over the patient. The phenomena of animal magnetism have been divided into six degrees. Those of the first degree are generally the following: first, the

feeling of a strong current from the head to the extremities, after which, a higher degree of heat follows, easily observable by the thermometer, greater redness of the skin, with increased perspiration, and a feeling of ease and comfort throughout the whole body. In the second degree, the warmth increases, and appears to the patient to diffuse itself from the stomach, as if from a central point, over the whole body. The pulse becomes generally fuller and stronger, and the breathing easier and deeper. The patient feels a heaviness in the eyelids, and an irresistible desire to close them. If he does close them, they seem to him cemented by the strongest power, and, during the remainder of the magnetic effects, it is impossible for him to open them. All the other senses, however, remain active, and their activity is often heightened. The patient knows, therefore, every thing which is done about him, though he is not always capable of speaking. At the close of the magnetic operation, he opens his eyes by himself, or with the assistance of the magnetizer, and feels generally strengthened and well. After this, the patient observes, sometimes, a shining appearance before his eyes, similar to repeated lightning, a pricking in the points of the fingers and toes alternately, a heaviness and coldness in the extremities, unpleasant feelings about the region of the stomach, sickness, violent shuddering, wish to cough, &c. The particular signs often accompanying the third degree, are, especially, swoons, convulsive tremblings, real convulsions, cataleptic and even apoplectic fits. This state generally begins with all the signs of an approaching drowsiness. Repeated yawning, stretching, heaviness of the eyelids, announce it. A deep sigh generally follows, after which the eyes close entirely, and a state begins similar to sleep, in which the patient seems to be deprived of all sensation and consciousness. In the fourth degree, the patient awakens, not from his sleep, but within himself, and regains his consciousness; he knows himself again, yet in a changed relation to surrounding circumstances. The external senses are either closed entirely, or their character is changed, and the internal sense only remains the same. The somnambulist (as he is called in this state), entirely awakened within himself, distinguishes with his eyes nothing but light and darkness, and not always even these, although, as is sometimes the case, the eyelids are open. The ball of the eye is either drawn up convulsively or stiff, the

pupil widened and without sensation. Next, the sense of feeling is metamorphosed into that of seeing, so that the somnambulist can distinguish by it, not only the outlines of things, but also colors, with perfect precision. The region of the stomach becomes the central point of all sensation, and it is chiefly through this region that the sense of sight is supplied. The somnambulist, therefore, can ascertain the time perfectly well by a watch, closely held to the pit of the stomach. By repeated exercise, the patient obtains this faculty in a higher degree, and what originally appeared to him indistinct becomes very clear. Persons appear to him more distinct than inanimate subjects. Hearing is likewise performed in this state by the pit of the stomach, and the sense of smell becomes sometimes so acute as to distinguish the different ingredients of compound scents. Objects which the person does not regard in a healthy and natural state, have often very sensible, and even dangerous effects on him when in a state of somnambulism. The vicinity of a living being, whom the patient perceives at a distance of 10 to 15 paces, is generally very disagreeable to him. If persons whom he dislikes touch him, paleness and coldness occur in the parts touched, and convulsions are generally the consequence. Among inanimate subjects, metals have the most unpleasant effect. To the magnet the somnambulist is still more sensitive than towards other metals. Of every thing which has occurred to the patient during this period, what he has perceived, thought, said or done, he has, when awaking, either no recollection or a very faint one; but if he is brought again into this state, he recollects every thing very well. In the fifth degree, the patient attains, by his heightened consciousness and the increased strength of his general feelings, to that internal self-contemplation by which he is able to investigate even the minutest parts of his bodily structure. By virtue of this accurate knowledge of his internal frame, the clairvoyant, as he is called in this state, not only determines very distinctly the seat and quality of his disease, but at the same time an instinct developes itself in him, which makes him understand the means necessary for his cure. Besides mentioning the remedies, the clairvoyant also indicates the kind of magnetizing necessary, and thus directs his own cure. This deep insight is not limited to the clairvoyant's self, but extends to persons brought into magnetic relations with him,

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whose sensations are always communicated to him. Between the magnetizer and the clairvoyant this sympathy is the strongest and most remarkable. Very often the feeling of disease in the magnetizer is not only communicated to the patient, but the disease itself, which, in some cases, has continued after the patient was awakened. Affections of the soul also pass from the magnetizer to the clairvoyant. Sometimes this sympathy reaches such a height, that it remains even when the parties are distant from each other. This magnetic sympathy may be still more heightened, and then the clairvoyant has a clear insight into the internal physical state of persons in a magnetic connexion with him, just as he has of his own; can determine their disease, its course and future phenomena, and prescribe the means of cure accordingly. He insists that he perceives the diseased state of others precisely as his own by the stomach. His language becomes more elevated than ordinary, and is marked by fire, spirit, precision. His perception is livelier and stronger, his thinking freer, deeper, his judgment quicker and more penetrating. He not only perceives the present, and the influence of external relations, much more distinctly than before, but penetrates also into the most distant period of past time, by way of memory. There is an obvious inclination of patients for each other, if they are treated by the same magnetizer, and particularly if they are in a state of somnambulism at the same time. The patient who has attained internal clearness by the fifth degree, penetrates, in the sixth degree, the darkness of external things, and attains a higher view of the whole of nature.

With uncommon clearness he often distinguishes the secrets of the past, what is distant and unknown in the present, and the events of coming time. If the patient is asked how he knows all this, he generally answers, that it is as if he were told of it by some other person, or that he feels it through the pit of the stomach. He is always fully convinced of the truth of what he thus acquires. In respect to the choice of proper remedies, the clairvoyant is less limited than before. In the former degree, it was necessary to put him into connexion with another person, by intermediate bodies; but, in this degree, he can be in this relation with any distant person, if he knows him, or feels a lively interest for him, or even if the magnetizer, or any other person brought into connexion with the clairvoyant by actual touch, knows the distant person, and

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thinks intently of him. The view of the clairvoyant extends even into the future condition of others. In this degree, he attains to a higher, fuller life than he had before. The body seems to be intimately amalgamated with the mind, to be blended into the most harmonious union with it. The individual is removed from every thing coarse and sensual, and placed in a state of serene and elevated self-contemplation. The feeling of the greatest bodily comfort and purity of soul produces a serene peace within him, which expresses itself in the nobler expression of the whole body. In this state, which, according to the clairvoyants, borders on heavenly felicity, they are incapable of impurity, and even the guilty obtains the feeling of virtue. Such are the wonders of animal magnetism, of which our readers may be lieve much or little. The attention which the subject has attracted in Europe is our excuse for the length of this article. The footing which it has gained, and the effects which it has produced, exemplify, strikingly, the power of imagination. It would require too much space to describe all the various manipulations and other operations by which the patient is placed in the magnetic state; for information respecting these, see Kluge's work, already cited.

MAGNIFICAT. The words which Mary pronounced when she visited Elizabeth (contained in chap. i. of Luke, 46-55), begin, in the Vulgate, Magnificat anima mea dominum (My soul doth magnify the Lord). Hence the whole of her thanksgiving, on this occasion, has been called the magnificat. The present usage of the Roman Catholic church is, to chant or pronounce the magnificat every day, at vespers. It has often been set to music, and forms part of the musical cyclus of the Catholic church. The magnificat is also often used in Protestant church music, on the European continent.

MAGNIFICENCE (highness, eminence); a title applied to the rectors and chancellors of the German universities, and to the burgomasters of free cities. A prince who takes the office of a rector is styled magnificentissimus.

MAGNIFYING GLASS. (See Microscope.) MAGNISA, OF MANIKA (anciently Magnesia ad Sipylum); a town of Natolia, near the Sarabat; 20 miles N. E. of Smyrna; lon. 27° 18′ E.; lat. 38° 44′ N. The streets are wide, the mosques painted white, and the houses better than in most other towns in this part of Natolia. It is situated at the foot of the ancient mount Sipylus, whose top is always covered with

snow. It is celebrated in history by the victory of the Romans over Antiochus the Great. Under John Ducas, it was made the capital of the Greek empire. The greatest ornament of the ancient town was a temple of Diana, called Leucophryene, or the White-browed. The environs were formerly celebrated for the production of loadstone, and it is supposed the word magnet is derived from it.

MAGNITUDE, APPARENT. If straight lines be drawn from the extremities of a visible object to the centre of the pupil of the eye, the angle formed by them is called the visual angle or the apparent magnitude of the object. This angle varies with the different distances of objects, being larger when they are near, and smaller when they are remote. Hence our idea of the magnitude of any object, depends not only upon its true dimensions, but also upon the angle under which we view it; and objects of very different dimensions will appear of equal magnitudes, if the visual angles under which they are seen are equal. Thus, for instance, the sun and moon, though their diameters are vastly different, each subtend an angle of about a degree. Besides, numerous prejudices and optical illusions, which we can never overcome, modify our ideas of the magnitude of objects. One of the most remarkable examples of such involuntary deception, is that which every one has experienced in looking at the moon: when it has just risen, it appears larger than when it has reached the zenith. In the horizon, we are apt to imagine it at a greater distance from us than in the zenith, because in the former case there are intervening objects with which we can compare it, but in the latter no such objects occur. If the moon is viewed through a telescope, or an open tube, so as to exclude the intervening objects, it will appear of equal magnitude in both cases, and the whole illusion will immediately vanish.

MAGNOLIA. The seven North American magnolias are the pride of our forests, on account of the elegance of their flowers and foliage. Their leaves are alternate, petiolate, and, in one species, evergreen; and their flowers are large, white or yellowish, solitary at the extremities of the branches, and, in some species, very fragrant; the leaves and wood are also more or less aromatic. They are not extensively diffused, and, two species excepted, are chiefly confined to the tract of country about the Alleghanies, especially towards their south-western extremity. They are

in great request in the European gardens, as they are adapted to a northern climate. Their wood in general is soft, spongy, and of no great utility. The M. tripetala, or umbrella tree, so called from the disposition of the leaves, in a radiated manner, towards the extremity of the branches, inhabits the whole extent of the Alleghanics, as far north as the 43d parallel of latitude. The leaves and flowers are very large, the latter having from 9 to 12 white petals, the three exterior ones being reflexed. The M. acuminata inhabits the same districts as the preceding. It is a lofty tree, attaining the height of 80 feet, with a proportional diameter. The flowers are inodorous, and have from six to nine petals of a greenish-yellow color. The leaves are pubescent beneath. The wood is soft, fine-grained, and susceptible of a brilliant polish; it is sometimes sawed into boards, and used in the interior of wooden houses. From the shape of the fruit, which is about three inches long, it is usually called cucumber tree. The M. auriculata is readily known by the two lobes at the base of the leaves. It inhabits the south-western parts of the Alleghany mountains. The M. cordata also inhabits the south-western parts of the Alleghanies. The leaves are cordate, pubescent beneath, and the flowers are yellow. It attains the height of 40 or 50 feet. The M. macrophylla is remarkable for the size of its leaves and flowers. The former are between two and three feet long, and the latter are upwards of a foot in diameter. The petals are from six to nine in number, and the three exterior ones have a purple spot at the base. It inhabits the south-western parts of the Alleghanies, but seems to be confined to certain limited districts. The M. glauca, or beaver-wood, is a beautiful little tree, or rather shrub, with leaves and flowers much smaller than in any of the preceding. It attains the height of 15 or 20 feet; the leaves are smooth, elliptical, obtuse, and glaucous beneath; the flowers are very elegant, and diffuse a delightful fragrance, though rather too powerful if the plant is shut up in an apartment. The leaves and wood have also a strong aromatic taste. It grows in wet situations in the Atlantic states, from near lat. 43° to Florida, and along the borders of the gulf, beyond the mouths of the Mississippi, but is not found in the upper country, nor west of the Alleghany mountains. The M. grandiflora, or big laurel, is confined to the lower parts of the Southern States, from North Carolina to Florida and Louisiana. It is a

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lofty and magnificent tree, with large evergreen leaves, and white flowers, which are conspicuous at a great distance. Magnolias are wanting in Europe, as well as in Western Asia, but towards the south-eastern part of this latter continent, we again meet with them. The Chinese magnolias are now not unfrequent in our gardens. The M. yulan grows to the height of 30 or 35 feet, and the large and numerous white flowers, expanding before the developement of the leaves, give it a very ornamental appearance. The M. purpurea is a shrub, bearing large flowers, which are purple externally. The M. fuscata is also a shrub, with small, dusky, yellowish, and delightfully fragrant flowers. Some magnificent species have lately been discovered on the mountains of the north of India.

MAGOG. (See Gog.)

It

MAGPIE (Corvus pica, L.). This crafty and well-known bird is found in both continents, though it is much more limited in its range in America, being confined to the northern and western regions. In its habits and manners it much resembles its brethren the crows; like them, it indiscriminately feeds on both animal and vegetable food; it is peculiarly destructive to the eggs and young of the feebler tribes of birds. It is about 18 inches in length, and weighs from eight to nine ounces. has a black bill, wings and tail; but the latter are variegated with white, green, purple and blue, of different shades. The construction of the nests of these birds shows great art, they having a thorny cover, and the entrance being at the side. The female lays from five to seven palegreenish eggs, closely spotted with black. When taken young, they readily become domesticated, and learn to repeat many words, and even sentences, as well as to imitate every noise within hearing. This faculty appears to have been known to the ancients, as Plutarch relates an account of the performances of one of these birds belonging to a barber in Rome. Like the other birds of the crow kind, the magpie is a notorious thief, and will not only steal food, but will carry off any articles within its reach, particularly such as are shining, as buttons, spoons, jewelry, &c., which it carefully conceals in its nest. Its general character has been described by Goldsmith in the following terms: "Were its other accomplishments equal to its beauty, few birds could be put in competition. Its black, its white, its green and purple, with the rich and gilded combinations of the glosses on its tail, are as

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fine as any that adorn the feathered tribe. But it has many of the qualities of a beau, to depreciate these natural perfections: vain, restless, loud and quarrelsome, it is an unwelcome intruder every where, and never misses an opportunity, when it finds one, of doing mischief." (See Wilson's Am. Ornithol., iv, p. 75.)

MAGYARS; the original name of the Hungarians, and which they still use in preference to any other. They first became known about the year 626. They came from Asia, but there are different opinions as to their original residence. It is most probable that they lived in the region about the Caspian sea, between the river Kama and the Ural mountains. The similarity which has been thought to exist between their language and the Finnish, has led to the conjecture that they were of Finnish origin. After various expeditions in Asia, they entered Europe at the close of the seventh century, and settled in the territory on the Ingul, between the Dnieper and the Don (in the present government of Ekaterinoslav). They remained here more than 200 years, until they were finally forced to retire before the attacks of the Petsheneges. In the last half of the ninth century, they passed over to Dacia, under their leader Arpad, settled in Pannonia in 896, and established a kingdom there. The ancient annalists sometimes call them Turks, but commonly Ugner (Hungarians). The country itself was called, from them, Hungary. (q. v.)

MAHA (in Sanscrit, great, large); a prefix to many names, as Mahanoddy (great river). MAHABHARATA. (See Indian Literature.) MAHE; a town and fortress of Hindoostan, on the coast of Malabar, belonging to the French; 32 miles N. W. of Calicut; lon. 75° 38′ E.; lat. 11° 43′ N.; population, about 6000. It is a neat town, and a station of the East India company's commercial agent, and carries on a trade in pepper, sandal-wood and cinnamon.

MAHMOUD, first sultan of the Gaznevide dynasty, was son of the governor of Chorasan, and sovereign of Gazna. He was 16 years old when his father died, in 997. He drove the king of Turkestan from Chorasan, and, in 1001, invaded Hindoostan, and captured Gebal, a powerful prince. In 1002, he reduced Khalif, the revolted governor of Segestan. He repeated his invasion of India, returned, and overcame Ilek Khan, who had invaded Chorasan. He defeated him a second time, though Ilek had been joined by Kader Khan, with 50,000 horse. He now extended his

conquests far and wide, and acquired inmense treasures. In 1029, he conquered Persian Irak. He died in 1030, after a prosperous reign of 31 years. He is extolled by the Mohammedan writers, for his regard to justice, and his zeal for the propagation of his religion, which be spread in India by the extermination of a vast number of idolaters, and the demolition of their temples.

MAHMOUD II; khan and padishab, sultan of the Ottomans, the 29th sovereign of the family of Osman, the 26th grand sultan, and 21st caliph," the shadow of Allah upon earth ;" an absolute prince, who, possessing by nature the disposition of a despot, has been obliged, for a great part of his reign, to contend against rebellions in the provinces, and the insubordination of the janizaries. He is the second son of Abd-ul-Hhamid, who died in 1789. He was born July 20, 1785, and was brought up in the ancient seraglio. (See Ottoman Empire.) Mustapha IV, the elder brother of Mahmoud, who ascended the throne in 1807, had already, according to ancient custom, ordered him to be put to death, that he might have no competitor to fear, when Ramir Effendi, paymaster of the army, at the head of 2000 Albanians, rescued the prince. The valiant Baïraktar, pacha of Ruschuk, immediately deposed Mustapha IV, and girded Mahmoud with the sword of Osman, July 28, 1808. Fourteen weeks afterwards, the janizaries, offended by the military reforms made by the grand vizier Baïraktar, took the seraglio by storm. Baïraktar immediately ordered the execution of Mustapha and his mother, and then blew himself up with his enemies. This happened Nov. 16, 1808. (See Ottoman Empire.) The battle between the Seymens (infantry on the European system, in favor of whom the sultan Mahmoud had declared himself) and the janizaries was continued 36 hours longer in the seraglio and the capital, amidst pillage and conflagrations. The rebels gained the victory, and, for the preservation of his life, Mahmoud was compelled to send deputies to them, and to submit unconditionally to their de mands. After these horrors, Mahmoud was not able to execute any plan of reform in the army, although he still persevered in his intention. At every attempt, the janizaries obtained by force the discharge and execution of the commanders and ministers who undertook to establish order and discipline. Mahmoud thought only of securing himself upon the throne, stained with the blood of his uncle Selim