visitations of this nature have been experienced throughout all the United States to the E. of the Rocky Mountains, the district in which they are really to be apprehended and where they are likely to prove in a considerable measure destructive to life and property, appears to be limited to the N. and central parts of the Mississippi Valley, and the basin of the Ohio River north of Central Kentucky. The waters of the Gulf of Mexico and of the neighbouring Carribbean Sea, as well as the shores of the main land and islands of that realm, constitute a field where another class of air-whirlings, the marine cyclones, also termed hurricanes, are frequently developed. These storms are much more enduring and more powerful than those formed upon the land; they often march from the regions where they are developed slowly up the Atlantic coast of the United States until they gradually penetrate to a realm of the sea where the air next the surface is so cool that they no longer receive the impulse which led to their development. These marine cyclones find their parallel in similar atmospheric convulsions which affect the Indian Ocean and the China Seas. In both realms the disturbance of the atmosphere is due to the heated condition of the air next the surface of the ocean, and its consequent upward movement into the upper parts of the aerial realm. The whirling movement is the simple consequent of this ascent of the air through a narrow channel. It finds its likeness in the whirling imparted to the water in a wash - basin when it flows through the opening in the bottom of the vessel. Another class of atmospheric actions in a measure peculiar to North America is found in the 'Cloud Bursts', or sudden torrential rains, which occasionally though rarely occur in the E. portion of the Cordilleras. In these accidents, though the region is on the whole arid, the rain occasionally falls over an area of limited extent with such rapidity that the air becomes almost unbreathable, and dry streambeds are in a few minutes converted into raging torrents. Although in their characteristic intensity these cloud bursts are limited to certain parts of the W. mountain district, a conspicuonsly rapid precipitation occasionally occurs in the more E. portion of the United States. In its original state, that in which it was found by the first Europeans who landed on its shores, the E. part of North America was seat of the greatest forest of broad-leaved trees,intermingled with pines and firs, which the world afforded. Although this noble Appalachian forest has suffered much from axe and fire, it still in part remains in its primæval state, forming a broad fringe of arboreal vegetation from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Central Texas, extending inland to the central portion of the Ohio Valley and up the Mississippi to near its confluence with the Ohio and Missouri Rivers. To the N. and W. of this great woodland lay a region of generally treeless plains. The district of the Cordilleras was scantily forested, and along the Pacific Coast and on the W. slope of the Sierra Nevada from Central California to the N., extended noble forests of narrow-leaf trees. Across the N. part of the continent the heavy growth of timber, somewhat stunted by the severity of the climate, extended from the -Pacific to the Atlantic shores. As a whole the continent bore an ampler mantle of forest growth than any part of the old world beyond the limits of the tropics. The traveller who for the first time visits North America should take care not to hamper his vision by pre-conceptions as to the beauty of natural scenery based upon the physiography of the old world. As a whole the aspect of the N. continent of the new world differs greatly from that of the old. In the former land there are none of those admirable combinations of snow-clad mountains and fertile valleys which lend such a charm to the scenery of Switzerland. In general the surface lacks those elements of detail which contribute so much to the picturesque aspect of a landscape. The scenery of North America is generally characterized by a largeness of mould and simplicity of outline dependent on the relatively uncomplicated nature of its geological history. The plains are vast and but little varied by elevations. The mountains of the Appalachian district have a singular continuity in their ridges, which, though it gives them a certain architectural beauty, deprives them of detail. The grander elevations of the Cordilleras, though attaining to about the altitude of the Alps, rise from a much more elevated base than the Swiss mountains, and therefore make a less striking impression upon the eye. At few points on the continent do mountains or even considerable hills come near to the coast, and the result is that the shore line has a monotony of aspect which is much contrasted with the sea margin of Europe. The lovers of picturesque beauty in nature may well seek in North America the charm of its primæval forests, the beauty of its great plains when they bear their spring-time flowers, and the attractions which are presented by the greater rivers with their noble valleys and often marvellous gorges. Of these cañons or defiles cut by the streams, those of the Cordilleras are by far the greatest in the world. That of the Colorado and that of the Yosemite, each in its way eminently peculiar, and differing one from the other in origin and in aspect, are doubtless the most striking features of the continent, for they are unequalled in any other land. The hystory of the aborigines in North America shows that this continent was only moderately well fitted for the nurture of races in their steps of passage from the primitive condition of man towards the ways of civilization. Though a remarkably fertile region, and abounding in game, the land contains none of those fortunate peninsulas, or districts walled about by mountains or the sea, which in the old world have afforded such admirable cradle-places for infant states. Thus it came to pass that in this country any tribe which attained some advance in civilization and became worth plundering was subjected to unending incursions from the neighbouring more savage folk. Only in Mexico and Central America did any of the primitive tribes advance beyond the stages of barbarism. The better fortune of those countries was probably due in the main to their more secluded positions. Moreover in North America the primitive people found no animals which were well suited for domestication or could render much help to man. The only beast which gave much promise of such aid, the bison, though a domesticable animal, has proved on the whole intractable and unfit for the uses of man. The united conditions of the continent which made it on the whole unsuited for the nurture of peoples in the first stages of their advance has been an advantage to the European folk who have been transplanted to this part of the new world. The simple geographic character of the country has made access to its different parts relatively easy, and brought about its subjugation to the uses of man with marvellous rapidity. Some bave feared that owing to the lack of diversities in the conditions of the continent, the people developed upon it would have an excessive uniformity in character and quality. The history of the populations, however, seems to show that the variety in climate, in soil or under-earth products, and in the occupations which these features require of people, are sufficient to ensure considerable difference in the folk developed in different sections of the land. Under the mask of a common language, which, though varied by provincial peculiarities, is a perfect means of communication among the greater part of the folk to the N. of Mexico, the acute observer will detect varieties in essential quality quite as great as those which separate the people who dwell in different parts of Great Britain, France, or Germany. Though in some part these peculiarities may have been due to the diverse origin of the folk, they are in the main to be attributed to the effects of the local conditions of climate and occupations. It is evident that the climate of North America, except those parts which have a subtropical character and the regions of the Far North which are too cold for tillage, are admirably suited to the uses of the European peoples from the states in the N. part of that continent. The descendants of the colonies from England, France, and Germany planted on this soil more than two centures ago between Florida and Labrador have all greatly prospered. They have increased in numbers at a more rapid rate than their kindred of the old world, their average life is as great if not greater, and their endurance of labour of all kinds is in no wise diminished. The history of the Civil War shows that in the essential qualities these men of the new world have lost nothing of their primitive strength. Fortunately for the transplanted population of America, the conditions of soil, climate, and earth-resources permit the people to continue on the ways of advancement in the occupations of life which were trodden by their forefathers in the old world. The agriculture and the mechanic arts required no change whatever on the part of the immigrants; the nature of the country seemed to welcome them to the new-found shores. XIII. Climate and Climatic Resorts of the United States. By Edmund Charles Wendt, M. D., of New York. Without some knowledge of the physical geography and topography of a country, an intelligent appreciation of its climatic peculiarities is not possible. This is particularly well seen in relation to the climatology of the United States. Extending from well-nigh arctic to almost subtropical regions, and from the level of the sea to elevations of nearly 15,000 ft.; covering a vast expanse of partly arid inland territory, and showing an enormous coast-line laved by two great oceans, it should not be surprising that every conceivable variety of climate may be found within its borders. As compared with Europe, perhaps the most noteworthy feature of the American climate consists in its greater range of temperature and comparative dryness. The E. is also strikingly colder than the W. coast as well as the European countries of corresponding latitudes. This circumstance has led to much confusion, and has given the United States an undeserved reputation of being everywhere colder than Europe. It is quite true that, if New York, for example, be compared to cities of the same latitude, like Naples, Madrid, and Constantinople, or if Boston be contrasted with Rome, the American towns will be found decidedly colder. On the other hand if cities on the W. coast, like San Francisco or Portland, be selected for comparison, only trifling differences will appear. Variations of Temperature. The mean annual temperature varies to the extent of over 40° Fahr. in different parts of the Union. Extremes of actually recorded temperatures extend from -56° Fahr. to 121° Fahr. in the shade, a range of 177°. Taking the mean temperature of July as representing the hot season, we find in different sections of the country variations of more than 30° viz. from 60° to over 90° Fahr. Again taking Jan. as a representative cold month, we find a range of over 50° viz. from 10° Fahr. to above 60°. Now it must not be forgotten that in the United States, perhaps more than elsewhere, temperature and climate are not merely questions of so many degrees of latitude. The lines for similar annual means (isothermal lines) are considerably modified by ocean currents and winds, besides being defected by the interposition of lofty mountain chains. Pacific Sierra Rocky Mississippi Basin Appalachian The Mountain Ranges. The two main ranges are the Appalachian System in the E. and the Cordillerean System (Rocky Mts. and Sierra Nevada) in the W. As will be seen later on, the W. highlands have a climate peculiar to themselves. They run from N.W. to S.E. for nearly 5000 M., i.e. from Alaska to Mexico, and gradually slope to the E., so as to fill in from one-third to one-half of the N. American continent. The E. or Appalachian system extends in a S.W. direction from Nova Scotia to Alabama, a distance of over 1500 M. Its width averages hardly one-fifth, and the elevation of its peaks and plateaus not one-half that of the W. highlands. Hence its effect on local climate is much less pronounced (Guyot). Between these great mountain ranges the vast Mississippi Basin stretches out for thousands of miles, from truly arctic regions to the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico. This basin also includes the Great Lake district, one of the prominent features of the N. states. The climate of this region is controlled by the vast expanse of these veritable 'inland oceans'. Three Main Climatic Divisions. In accordance with the brief description just given, we recognize three main climatic divisions in the United States. 1. An Eastern Region, extending from the foot of the Rocky Mts. to the Atlantic seaboard, and including the entire Appalachian system. 2. The Plateau and Mountain Region of the Western Highlands. 3. The Pacific Slope, to the W. of the Sierra Nevada range. The peculiarities of each region may be briefly stated as follows: 1. The Atlantic seaboard is moderately moist, and, in general, rather equable. It is, however, subject to summer 'hot spells', and winter 'cold snaps' of a very trying kind. The altitude of the Appalachian system is not sufficient to very materially affect the distribution of heat, winds, and rainfall, so that the change is a gradual one, as we approach the dry interior zone of the Great Mississippi Basin. The latter region, about 1,245,000 sq. M. in extent, is in general warm and moderately equable. Extensive forests supply adequate moisture to the air, but where trees are sparse, the atmosphere becomes excessively dry. The Great Lakes temper this region on the N. and the Gulf of Mexico warms it on the S. Nevertheless Europeans often complain both of great summer heat and extreme winter cold; sensations which the thermometer rarely fails to justify. The numerous local departures from this general condition cannot be considered here. 2. The Plateau and Mountain Region is dry and cold. The higher peaks are Alpine in character. The great plateaus, situated between the border chain of the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mts., are on an average 5000 ft. above sea-level. Some of them are fully 6000 ft. high. The climate there is harsh, cold, and very dry. It is a common mistake, however, to suppose that these elevated plateaus are merely barren wastes. Especially at the lower levels richly fertile valleys are everywhere found to alternate with sandy treeless tracts, salt lakes, and marshy wastes. That there are corresponding differences in local climates can only be alluded to in this place. During the height of summer the days are hot, but as soon as the sun sets, the air grows chilly, and the nights are always cold. 3. The mountain slope of the Pacific is characterized by abruptness and great irregularity. Its climate is varied. The narrow strip bordering on the ocean is much warmer, more humid, and very decidedly more equable than corresponding interior latitudes and the Atlantic coast. This Pacific section is farther distinguished by a well-marked wet season, corresponding to the E. winter, and an equally well-defined dry season, corresponding to the E. summer. Moreover, cool summers and mild winters, as well as the complete absence of those extreme variations, which elsewhere mar the climate of the States, render the Pacific coast pleasantly conspicuous. It is here that some of the most popular winter and summer healthresorts have been established. Some Special Features. In regard to temperature, it is significant that, in spite of the wide range of the thermometer, something like 98 per cent of the entire population inhabit those regions in which the annual means extend from 40° to 70° Fahr. only. Roughly calculated, therefore, the average annual temperature of the whole United States is 55° Fahr. But foreigners are of course more interested in the extremes of heat and cold, which are disagreeably perceptible in almost all the states. The most delightful season of the year is unquestionably the so-called 'Indian summer', i.e. the few Autumn weeks which precede the actual onset of winter. It would be difficult to imagine anything more exhilarating than the crisp air, brilliant sunshine, clear blue skies, and grateful temperature characterizing the closing days of an 'Indian summer' at its best. |