habit of spitting on the floor; but the Americans themselves are now keenly alive to these weak points and are doing their best to remove them.

Throughout almost the whole country travelling is now as safe as in the most civilized parts of Europe, and the carrying of arms, which indeed is forbidden in many states, is as unnecessary here as there. Those who contemplate excursions into districts remote from the highways of travel should take local advice as to their equipment. The social forms of America are in their essentials, similar to those of England; and the visitor will do well to disabuse himself of the idea that laxity in their observance will be less objectionable in the one country than in the other. He will, of course, find various minor differences in different parts of the country, but good manners will nowhere be at a discount. No limit is placed on the number of passengers admitted to public conveyances, and straps are provided in the cars of tramways and elevated railways to enable those who cannot obtain seats to maintain their equilibrium. The prices of almost all manufactured goods are much higher in the United States than in Europe; and the traveller should therefore come provided with an ample supply of all the articles of personal use he or she is likely to require, down to such small items as pins and needles, tapes and ribbons, dress ties and gloves, toilette requisites, buttons, and matches (generally very poor in America). An important exception to the above rule is boots and shoes, which are excellently made in the United States and cost, if anything, rather less than in England. Cotton goods are also as cheap as in Europe. Indoor clothing for American use should be rather thinner in texture than is usual in England, but winter wraps for outdoor use require to be much thicker. The thick woollen gowns that English ladies wear in winter would be uncomfortably warm in the ordinary winter temperature of American hotels and railway carriages; and a thin soft silk will, perhaps, be found the most comfortable travelling dress on account of its non-absorption of dust. Overshoes ('arctics' and 'rubbers') are quite necessary in winter and are worn almost as much by men as by women. Weddings frequently take place in the evening, and are managed by a set of 'ushers' chosen from the bridegroom's friends. The rule of the road in America follows the Continental, not the English system, vehicles passing each other to the right. The art of the Barber and Hair-Dresser has been developed to a high point in the United States, where the 'tonsorial saloons' are often very luxurious. The prices, however, are high (15-25 c. for a shave, including hair-brushing and the application of essences; hair-cutting 25-35 c., shampooing 15-25 c., 'sea foam' or 'dry shampoo' 10-20 c., etc.).

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Public Conveniences are not usually provided in American cities, but their place is practically supplied by the lavatories of hotels, to which passers-by resort freely. Accommodation is also furnished at railwaystations. Such public conveniences as do exist in New York and other large cities are disgracefully inadequate in number, size, and equipment.

Public Holidays. The only holidays observed in all the states are Independence Day (July 4th) and Christmas Day (Dec. 25th). New Year's Day (Jan. 1st) and Washington's Birthday (Feb. 22nd) are celebrated in nearly all the states. Decoration Day (May 30th) is set apart in the N. and W. states for decorating with flowers the graves of those who fell in the Civil War; and some of the S. states have a Memorial Day for the same purpose. Thanksgiving Day (last Thurs. in Nov.) is observed with practical unanimity; and General Election Day and Labor Day (Sept. 5th) are each celebrated by a large number of states. In addition to the above, each state has its own special holidays.

IX. A Short History of American Politics

by

John Bach McMaster.

What is now the territory of the United States has been derived from six European nations. Resting on the discovery by Columbus, and the Bulls of the Popes, Spain claimed the whole Continent, but has been in actual possession only of the Gulf coast from Florida to Texas, and of the interior from the Mississippi to the Pacific. The Swedes once had settlements on the Delaware. The Dutch, following up the voyage of Hudson to the river bearing his name, claimed and held the country from the Delaware to the Connecticut. The French discovered the St. Lawrence and explored and held military possession of the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio and the Great Lakes. The English by virtue of the voyages of the Cabots claimed the Atlantic coast and there founded the colonies which grew into the thirteen United States. Alaska was purchased from Russia.

In the course of the struggle, sometimes peaceful, often bloody, by which the rule of these nations has been thrown off, the Dutch conquered the Swedes; the English conquered the Dutch and the French; the United States expelled the English and in time by purchase or conquest drove out the Spaniards and the Mexicans.

The first serious struggle for possession occurred in the middle of the 18th cent., when the English moving westward met the French moving eastward at the sources of the river Ohio. In that struggle which has come down to us as the 'French and Indian War' France was worsted and, retiring from this continent, divided her possessions between England and Spain. To England she gave Canada and the islands and shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and, entering what is now the United States, drew a line down the middle of the Mississippi River and gave all to the E. of that line (save the island on which is the city of New Orleans) to Great Britain, and all to the W. of it to Spain; Spain at the same time gave Florida to England as the price of Cuba.

Having thus come into possession of all the country to the E. of the Great River, King George determined to send out an army of 10,000 men to defend the colonies, and have the latter bear a part of the expense. This part he attempted to collect by duties on goods imported and by a Stamp Tax (1765) on legal documents and printed matter. No tax for revenue had before been laid on America by act of Parliament. The colonists therefore resisted this first attempt and raising the cry 'no taxation without representation' they forced Parliament to repeal the Stamp Tax in 1766. The right to tax was at the same time distinctly asserted, and in 1767 was again used, and duties laid on paints, oils, lead, glass, and tea. Once more the colonists resisted and, by refusing to import any goods, wares, or

merchandise of English make, so distressed the manufacturers of England that Parliament repealed every tax save that on tea. All the tea needed in America was now smuggled in from Holland. The East India Company, deprived of the American market, became embarrassed, and, calling on Parliament for aid, was suffered to export tea, a privilege never before enjoyed. Selecting commissioners in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, cargoes of tea were duly consigned to them; but the people would not allow a pound of it to be sold. At Boston men disguised as Indians boarded the tea ships and threw the boxes into the harbour (comp. p. 78).

As a punishment for this, Parliament shut the port of Boston and deprived the people of Massachusetts of many functions of local government. The Assembly of Massachusetts thereupon called for a General Congress to meet at Philadelphia on Sept. 5th, 1774. The colonies gladly responded and this Congress, having issued a Declaration of Rights and addresses to the King, to Parliament, and to the People of England, adjourned to await the result. The day for the reassembling of Congress was May 10th, 1775; but before that day came, the attempt of Gage to seize military stores brought on a fight at Lexington (April 19th, 1775; p. 113). The fight at Lexington was followed by the siege of the British in Boston, by the formation of the 'Continental Army', by the appointment of George Washington to command it, by the battle of Bunker Hill (June 17th, 1775; p.85), and by an expedition against Quebec, which came to naught, on the last day of the year.

Lord Howe meantime had succeeded Gage in command of the British at Boston, and, finding himself hard pressed by Washington, evacuated the city and sailed for Halifax. Believing New York was to be attacked, Washington now hurried to Long Island, where (August 27th, 1776; p. 52) Howe defeated him, took possession of New York, and drove him first up the Hudson and then southward across New Jersey.

Congress, which (July 4th, 1776) had declared the colonies to be free and independent states, now fled from Philadelphia to Baltimore. But Washington, turning in his retreat, surprised and captured the British outpost at Trenton (p. 209). Cornwallis instantly hurried toward that town, but Washington, passing around the British rear, attacked and captured (at Princeton, Jan. 3rd, 1777; p. 208) a detachment on its march to Trenton, and then went into winter quarters at Morristown.

With the return of spring Howe, finding that he could not reach Philadelphia by land without passing in front of the Continental Army stretched out on a strongly intrenched line across New Jersey, went by sea. Washington met him at Chadd's Ford on the Brandywine(p. 244), was defeated, and on Sept. 25th, 1777, Howe entered Philadelphia. In the attempt to dislodge him Wash

BAEDEKER's United States.

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ington fought and lost the battle of Germantown (Oct. 4th, 1777; p. 221). The loss of Philadelphia was more than made good by the capture of Burgoyne and his army at Saratoga (Oct. 17th, 1777; p. 180), while on his way from Canada to New York City.

The fruits of this victory were the recognition of the Independence of the United States by France, the treaty of alliance with France (Feb. 8th, 1778), and the evacuation of Philadelphia by Clinton, who had succeeded Howe. Washington, who had spent the winter at Valley Forge (p. 229), instantly followed, and overtaking Clinton at Monmouth fought and won the battle at that place (June 29th, 1778). Clinton escaped to New York, and Washington, drawing his army in a circle about the city from Morristown on the S. to West Point on the N., awaited further movements.

Turning towards the Southern States, the British commander now despatched an expedition which took Savannah and overran the State of Georgia. The year which followed (1779) is memorable for the capture of Stony Point by Anthony Wayne (p. 148), for the treason of Benedict Arnold (pp. 148, 152), for the execution of Major John André (p. 150), for the capture of the Serapis by Paul Jones after one of the most desperate naval battles on record, and by the failure of an attempt by the Americans to retake Savannah (p. 351). In 1780 Clinton led an expedition from New York to Charleston, took the city, swept over South Carolina, and, leaving Cornwallis in command, hurried back to New York. Gates, who now attempted to dislodge the British, was beaten. Greene, who succeeded Gates, won the battle of the Cowpens (Jan. 17th, 1781; p. 335). This victory brought up Cornwallis, who chased Greene across the State of North Carolina to Guilford Court House (p. 335), where Greene was beaten and Cornwallis forced to retreat to Wilmington. Moving southward, Greene was again beaten in two pitched battles, but forced the British to withdraw within their lines at Charleston and Savannah.

Cornwallis meantime moved from Wilmington into Virginia and took possession of Yorktown. And now Washington, who had long been watching New York, again took the offensive, hurried across New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and, while a French fleet closed the Chesapeake Bay, he besieged Cornwallis by land, till (Oct. 19th, 1781) the British General surrendered (p. 330). This practically ended the war.

The Treaty of Peace, in 1783, actually ended it, secured the independence of the United States and fixed her boundaries, roughly speaking, as the Atlantic Ocean on the E., the Mississippi on the W., New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence, and the Great Lakes on the N., and the parallel of 31° on the S.

While the war was still raging Congress had framed an instrument of government, which the States ratified and put in force on Mar. 1st, 1781. This instrument of government which bound the thirteen States

in perpetual union was known as the Articles of Confederation, and established a government as bad as any yet devised by man. There was no executive, no judiciary, and only the semblance of a legislature. The Congress consisted of not more than seven nor less than two delegates from each State; sat in secret session; was presided over by a President elected from its own members; and could not pass any law unless the delegates of nine states assented. It could wage war, make treaties, and borrow money; but it could not lay a tax of any kind whatsoever; nor regulate commerce between the States, or with foreign powers; and was dependent entirely on the liberality of the States for revenue. This defect proved fatal. Inability to regulate foreign commerce by duties stripped the country of its specie. Lack of specie forced the States to issue paper money. Paper money was followed by tender acts and force acts and, in some places, by a violent stoppage of justice by the debtor class. A commercial and financial crisis followed and the people of the States, reduced to desperation, gladly acceded to a call for a national trade convention which met in Philadelphia in May, 1787. The instructions of the delegates bade them suggest amendments to the Articles of Confederation. But the convention, considering the Articles too bad to be mended, framed the Constitution which the people, acting through conventions in the various states, ratified during 1787 and 1788.

On Mar. 4th, 1789, the Constitution became the 'supreme law of the land.' In the first congress no trace of party lines is visible. But the work of establishing government had not gone far when differences of opinion sprang up; when the cry of partial legislation was raised, and the people all over the country began to divide into two great parties, - those who favoured and those who opposed a liberal construction of the language of the Constitution and the establishment of a strong national government. The friends of national government took the name of Federalists, and under the lead of Alexander Hamilton who, as Secretary of the Treasury, marked out the financial policy of the administration, they funded the foreign and domestic debt occasioned by the war for independence, assumed the debts incurred by the States in that struggle, set up a national bank with branches, and laid a tax on distilled liquors. Each one of these acts was met with violent opposition as designed to benefit a class, as unconstitutional, and as highly detrimental to the interests of the South. Against the Federalists were now brought charges of a leaning towards monarchy and aristocracy. Great Britain it was said has a funded debt, a bank, and an excise. These things are, therefore, monarchical institutions. But the Federalists have introduced them into the Unitet States. The Federalists, therefore, are aristocrats, monarchists, and monopolists.

Of all who believed these charges, none believed them more sincerely than Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Stade. Seeing in these

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