stance. VIII. NEW FORMATIONS, OR NEOPLAS- | Two forms of lupus are now well recognized MATA. In this group, in which there is a new and described: lupus vulgaris and lupus erydevelopment of disease elements not caused by thematosus. The former appears first in the inflammation, 14 distinct diseases are included. form of separate rounded tubercles, or collec-Keloid relates to a fibrous growth in the skin tions of soft, red, pulpy tissue in the skin, which much resembles that resulting from a generally grouped together, forming larger or wound of a burn. The peculiarity of the true smaller masses, which may become covered keloid is, that it has a tendency to spread or with scales, or may ulcerate and be raw or increase, and there arises a reddish elevation, crusted over. The most common seat of lupus firm in structure and irregular in outline, with is on the face, though no part of the body is finger-like prolongations reaching out from it. exempt from its ravages; when occurring on Little can be done for these growths, and the the nose, it almost always results in very serigeneral medical opinion favors non-interference ous deformity. It is an exceedingly chronic with them, as they give but slight annoyance, and rebellious disease, not infrequently recurand if left alone will not cause further harm; ring as often as removed by treatment. The moreover, attempts at removal by caustics or treatment offering the most immediate results the knife have very frequently been followed is that by surgical interference, in the way of by recurrence of the growths, and even their scraping or scarifying the surface; another increase.-Fibroma is the naine given to cir- plan often very serviceable is the destruction cumscribed growths of fibrous tissue in the of the tubercles by boring them thoroughly skin, giving rise to small tumors of various with sticks of nitrate of silver. A certain sizes, generally round, often pedunculated, but amount can be accomplished by milder means, frequently also sessile. Sometimes only a sin- and the disease can sometimes be removed by gle tumor will be found, but sometimes they ointments and plasters. Internal medication multiply to an amazing number; and over 3,000 has comparatively little effect upon it, although growths of this form, of various sizes, have it may in a measure check its new development. been counted upon a single individual. They Prominent among the remedies used internally are perfectly harmless, and give no annoyance may be mentioned cod-liver oil, which appears except by their presence; they can be com- to control the lupus process to a slight degree. pletely removed surgically, and without much Arsenic has been lauded by some, but its claims difficulty, except of course when their number have not been verified by most dermatologists. is very great. Occasionally this overgrowth of Lupus erythematosus is so named because in the fibrous structure of the skin attains enor- many cases the disease is so superficial that mous proportions, and the tumors may weigh it appears almost as an erythema alone, with many pounds.-Xanthoma, xanthelasma, or viti- none of the separate tubercles described as ligoidea is a new growth characterized by the belonging to the first variety. The most comdevelopment of yellowish or light fawn-colored mon seat of this is also the face, and when patches of limited extent in the skin, most com- completely and characteristically developed we monly about the eyelids. The surfaces of these have surfaces of dark red or pinkish skin, of patches are generally slightly raised, but some- varying size, generally tending to a circular times the elevation may be considerable. The form, and covered with a moderate amount of surface of the diseased portion has a soft vel- rather thick, greasy scales, which are quite advety feel, and may be pinched up, showing a herent. These patches do not tend to ulcerate moderate amount of thickening. They cause and destroy tissue as do those of lupus vulgaris, little or no annoyance, and advice is sought but they always leave more or less of a scar. chiefly for cosmetic reasons. They can be re- This is one of the most rebellious of diseases moved by excision, and if but a small portion of the skin, and very few internal or external is cut out at a time the resulting scar may be remedies have any very certain or powerful in. trifling. Strong evidence has been adduced to fluence over it. More recently better results show that this state is due to disturbances of the have been obtained by cutting or scraping the liver action, but high authorities also maintain surface than from any other means.-Scrofuthat there is no such connection.-Lupus (Lat., loderma is a term applied to a diseased portion wolf), the next neoplasm, is one of the most of skin occurring in conjunction with and deimportant diseases in this group. The name pendent on that ill defined and yet common was given to the affection because of its great state of the system called scrofula. (See SCROFtendency to destroy or eat away tissue, which ULA.) The skin is dark red, more or less in severe cases is a marked and terrible feature. raised in tubercles or masses, which may ulThe disease, however, is not nearly so frequent cerate and become covered with crusts; or the in this country as in France and Germany, nor tissue may break down and give exit to an unis it so severe. Many cases which formerly healthy pus, and a reddened puckered scar rewould have been called lupus are now recog- sult.-Rhinoscleroma designates an exceedingly nized as epithelioma or rodent ulcer, and many rare disease affecting the nose, wherein a greatothers are found to be forms of syphilis. It ly hardened tissue takes the place of the normust here be mentioned that lupus as properly mal structure, which by its continued growth understood has no connection with syphilis, may greatly disfigure the nose, and occlude the and that the term syphilitic lupus is wrong. nostrils. It is readily destroyed with caustics, but has considerable tendency to recur.-Lep. rosy, elephantiasis Græcorum, now called lepra, belongs in this group of new formations; it is quite distinguished from the lepra of older writers, now called psoriasis, with which it has no connection. (See ELEPHANTIASIS, LEPRA, and LEPROSY.)-The next new growth is carcinoma or cancer. (See CANCER, and TUMOR.) With internal cancer we have little to do at the present writing; but there is a form of skin disease named epithelioma which must be noticed, inasmuch as it is regarded by many as the least expressed form of the cancerous state, though there is some doubt as to whether it should really be considered as having any connection with true cancer. Epithelioma often begins in a most insignificant manner. little, hard, wart-like mass may remain for A years without giving trouble; when later it gets scratched, a crust forms, which is picked | off again and again, until the ulcer beneath widens and deepens, and acquires hard and everted edges; the sore progresses rapidly, and may cover a great surface, causing much pain and even destroying life. The most common location for epithelioma is about the face, although no portion of the body is exempt from it. The lower lip, especially in males who smoke, is a very common seat; also about the region of the eyes and temples. The name "rodent ulcer" is given to certain forms of this affection, especially about the upper part of the face, which have a tendency to produce deep destruction, and to have hard, everted edges, composed of many separate nodules. Epithe lioma, if at all well developed, is always a serious affair, and should receive competent medical attention. In its early stages it is entirely curable by caustics or surgical operation, or both, when pushed far enough to completely destroy the new growth and to reach healthy tissue; but imperfect destruction will be followed by a return of the disease. When the new growth has invaded large surfaces, operative interference seems almost useless, for it is very difficult to secure healing of the wound left without a reproduction of the diseased tissue. Internal medication, as also salves, &c., are impotent to cure the disease.-Sarcoma (see TUMORS), as applied to the skin, refers to the development in this tissue, or in the subcutaneous tissue, of one or many tumors of varying size, generally small, from the size of a large pea to that of a hickory nut, but which may become much larger. At first these tumors are freely movable, but soon the skin over them becomes adherent, and if irritated they may ulcerate. Sometimes they have a pigment element, and as they approach the surface the skin becomes bluish black. Unless irritated, sarcoma does not of itself give rise to much if any pain, but may and frequently does do harm, and even destroy life, by the very great development of this peculiar cellular deposit or formation, not only in the skin, but also in internal organs essential to life. SMART general, born near Moscow in 1845. He gradSKOBELEFF, Mikhail Dimitriyevitch, a Russian uated at the military academy of St. Petersburg in 1864, and went to Turkistan, where he commanded a company of Cossacks. In 1871 he commanded a battalion of the line in the grand duke Michael. In 1873 he commandthe Caucasus, and was attached to the staff of ed the advance guard of Lomakin's column in the march upon Khiva, and displayed his independence by disobeying orders. He and the lives by remaining alone in the palace of the American correspondent McGahan risked their khan of Khiva to furnish a report to Gen. Kaufmann. Skobeleff afterward made a reconnoissance in disguise to the Turkoman desert, decoration. In the campaign in Khokan (1875), and for these displays of bravery received a where he served under his father and Gen. Trotzki, he was again one of the most enterprising officers, distinguishing himself at Makhram, at Andijan, and elsewhere, and was rewarded with the rank of general. When, in February, 1876, Khokan was annexed to Russia, against Turkey, having joined the army of the he was made its governor. In 1877, in the war grand duke Nicholas, Gen. Skobeleff served as swimming the river on horseback, and leada volunteer at the crossing of the Danube, ing a bayonet charge. He next received command of a flying detachment, with which he took a gallant part in the attack on Plevna, July 30, entering the town and afterward covering the Russian retreat. Lovatz, Sept. 3, was due in great part to his bravery. In the attack on Plevna of Sept. 11 he was Imeritinski's chief of staff, and led four regiments, with which he captured and held ultimately forced to retire with terrible loss. for twenty-four hours two redoubts, being He was made a lieutenant general and chief of the 16th division. He was one of the principal leaders in the combined attack on the Jan. 9, 1878. He commanded the advance on Shipka army, which resulted in its capture, Adrianople, which he captured unopposed, and led the advance on Constantinople, occupying Tchatalja on Feb. 6. After the conclusion of peace he had charge of the retiring army; and in the summer of 1880 he was appointed to the command of a new expedition against the Tekke Turkomans. The capture of inburgh about 1840. SMART, John, a British painter, born in Edcation and has spent the greater part of his He received his eduprofessional life in his native city. He has depicted chiefly the wild, barren scenery of the highlands, occasionally introducing cattle. He academy in 1877. was elected a member of the Scottish royal Frist of Winter's Snaws," "Autumn, Glen LyHis works include "The on, 66 Drumharry," Head of Glen Ogle," Storm," "In the Pass of Lyon," "Far from "Hill Frank Clipping Day," "A_Feeding the Busy World," "When Hill-taps a' were White," and "Halt of the Herd." His "Gloom 66 of Glen Ogle" was at the Philadelphia exhibi- | of his works at the water-color exhibitions tion of 1876. there. He was elected a member of the watercolor society in 1871, and treasurer in 1873, which post he still holds (1880). His works include "Summer in the Woods, White Mountains," "The Old Man of the Mountain,” "Overlook Falls" and "Walker's Falls, Franconia Notch," "A Summer's Day," "Grandfather's Home," "In the Darkling Woods," "Under the Leaves," "Deserted," The Old Smithy," and "Looking Seaward.” He sent his "Old Cedars, Franconia Mountains," and "In the Darkling Woods," to the Philadelphia exhibition of 1876. He is also an engineer and a contractor to build lighthouses. works include "The Progress of Civilization" SMILLIE. I. James, an American engraver, born in Edinburgh in 1807. After working some time as an apprentice to silver and picture engravers, he was brought to America at the age of 14, and worked for his father and brothers, who established themselves as jewellers in Quebec. His skill attracted attention, and he was sent back to Edinburgh, where he remained five months under Andrew Wilson, and then returned to Quebec. In 1829 he settled in New York, where he has been largely connected with bank-note engraving. Among his best plates are: "The Convent Gate," after R. W. Weir; "Voyage of Life," after Cole; SONNTAG, William Louis, an American painter, "Rocky Mountains," after Bierstadt; "The born in Pennsylvania in 1822. He has followed Bay and Harbor of New York," after John J. his art in Cincinnati, in Italy, and in New Chapman; "Dover Plains," after A. B. Du-York, where he has lived since 1860. His rand; "Evening in the New York Highlands," after Weir; "Mount Washington, from Conway Valley," after John F. Kensett; "American Harvesting," after J. F. Cropsey; and "The Land of the Cypress," after Huntington. II. James D., an American painter, son of the preceding, born in New York in 1833. He devoted himself to engraving until 1864, when he turned his attention to drawing and painting, studying among the great mountain ranges of the United States. In 1862 he made a short visit to Europe. He was president of the American society of painters in water-colors from 1873 to 1878, and has contributed regularly to its exhibitions and to those of the national academy of design, of which he is an official member. His works include "Evening among the Sierras of California," "The Lifting of the Clouds, White Mountains," "Dark against Day's Golden Death," and "Cedar Meadow, Poughkeepsie," all in oil; in water-colors, "A Scrub Race on the Western Prairies," and "The Track of the Torrent, Adirondacks." "The Scrub Race" and "A Study from Nature, Ausable River," were at the centennial exhibition in 1876. For "Picturesque America" he illustrated the Saguenay and the Yosemite, and also furnished the description of the latter. III. George H., an American painter, brother of the preceding, born in New York in 1840. At an early age he entered the studio of James M. Hart. In 1871 he made a trip to the Rocky mountains and the Yosemite valley, for the purpose of study and sketching; and in 1874 he visited Florida. His works include "Boquet River and Hills," "Under the Pines of the Yosemite" (water-color), “A Lake in the Woods," "A Florida Lagoon," "Hard Fare," "Late Autumn," and "A Goat Pasture." He sent his oil painting "Lake in the Woods to the centennial exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876; also his two water-colors, "Sentinel Rock, Yosemite Valley," and "Study on the To be funded for bills of the bank of the state. Ausable River, New York." SMITH, Francis Hopkinson, an American painter, born in Baltimore in 1838. He has made New York his home, and exhibited most SOUTH CAROLINA. The population of the state in 1880 was 995,577, of whom 490,408 were males, 505,169 females, 987,891 natives, 7,686 foreign, 391,105 whites, 604,332 colored, and 140 Chinese and Indians. The chief agricultural productions were 16,257 bushels of barley, 11,767,099 of corn, 2,715,505 of oats, 27,049 of rye, 962,358 of wheat, 2,706 tons of hay, 229 hogsheads of sugar, 138,944 gallons of molasses, 52,077,515 lbs. of rice (more than any other state), 522,548 bales of cotton, 144,942 bushels of Irish and 2,189,622 of sweet potatoes; number of horses, 60,660; 67,005 mules and asses, 24,507 working oxen, 139,881 milch cows, 199,321 other cattle, 118,889 sheep, and 628,198 swine; value of manufactures, $16,738,008.-The total bonded debt of the state, Oct. 31, 1882, was $6,571,825 43, made up as follows: Consols (valid). State scrip, agricultural college.. To be funded for ante-bellum principal and in- To be funded for post-bellum principal and in- Total.......... $5,429,923 54 501,992 24 191,800 00 168,924 47 178.513 50 105,289 63 878 00 $6,571,825 43 The annual interest on the above is $394,509 53. To pay this interest a tax is authorized profitably worked, chiefly by the students. -The number of persons in the state between the ages of 6 and 16 years is as follows: Male.. Total....... of 3 mills. The total value of the real prop- | The number of patients under treatment in sus of 1880, was: Charleston, 49,984; Columbia, 10,036; Greenville, 6,160. See map in supplement to Volume VII. per acre. The money value of the crops of of the year; or the Pelzer mills, which susSouth Carolina in 1882 exceeded that of 1881 pended for repairs and enlargement. The stock by $18,572,525. In addition to the increase in of all these factories, except five, is above par, other farm products, the record for the year and the stock of these five is at par. The divishows an increase of the crops of 1882 over dends range from 10 to 20 per cent. The state those of the preceding year of 28,193,277 has exempted capital invested in factories from lbs. of rice; 198,677 gallons of sorghum mo- all taxation, except the two-mill school tax, for lasses; 181,838 bushels of Irish potatoes; $42,- ten years. The legislature of 1882 granted 243 in sales of garden produce; 49,787 lbs. charters to nine new factories, with an aggreof honey; 324,056 lbs. of butter; 58,522 head gate capital of $1,725,000. At the beginning of poultry, and 179,626 dozen eggs. Twenty- of 1882 the debt of Charleston amounted to five per cent. of these large crops were fer- $4,264,050, being $500,000 less than in 1881. tilized with home-made composts, and 10 per The interest amounts to $183,474. Reduction cent. less commercial manures were purchased of principal and interest was not effected by than in 1881. The value of the excess of the scaling or readjusting, but by paying the prinproducts of 1882 over those of the previous cipal and by refunding the matured debt in year amounted to more than the entire value long-date non-taxable bonds bearing a low rate of the farm supplies bought in 1881. The of interest. The municipal government is now farmers sold large quantities of grain, and kept prohibited from contracting any debt in excess an abundance for home consumption. The most of the income of the current year, unless the valuable of the products of South Carolina are debt to be incurred shall be approved, first, by the apparently inexhaustible phosphate depos- a vote of two thirds of the city council; secits of the Charleston basin, whose value was ond, by two thirds of the voters of Charleston first discovered in 1867. In 1870 the shipments at a special election; and, third, by the general of phosphate rock were 1,989 tons; in 1882 assembly. The trade of Charleston, for the they were 140,772 tons. The royalty of $1 year ending Aug. 31, 1882, was $74,839,904, a ton constitutes about one fourth of the entire against $71,211,000 the preceding year.-The revenue of the state. The two systems pre-population of the principal places, by the cenvailing are known as "exclusive" and "general" rights. By exclusive right is meant such territory as the state has granted to be worked exclusively by the grantees. General rights permit holders to work in any streams not controlled by exclusive-right grants. The state's royalty from exclusive rights amounted in 1882 to $125,956 out of $138,254. Since 1870 the state has received from this source $948,852. The phosphates contain from 25 to 28 per cent. of phosphoric acid, equivalent to 55 or 60 per cent. of bone phosphate of lime. The mining companies, of which there are thirty-six, and the individuals engaged in this industry give employment to 2,500 persons, who receive annually at least $500,000. Large amounts are invested in the manufacture and manipulation of these phosphates by the Charleston fertilizer companies, of which there are twenty. The discovery of these deposits has added nearly $1,000,000 to the receipts of the treasury, brought $18,000,000 into the state, as capital, built up the port of Charleston, furnished freight and business for the railroads, and made an actual cash reduction of 25 per cent. in the general tax levy.-South Carolina ranks twentieth in the list of fish-producing states, with 1,005 fishermen, and products valued at $212,482. Her shrimp fisheries are nearly as great as those of all other states combined. The waterpower of South Carolina has been estimated at 3,000,000 horse-power, of which only 15,000 horse-power is used. The cotton mills contain 180,701 spindles and 4,120 looms, paid in wages during 1882 $728,900 to 4,262 hands, and have a capital of $4,547,000. This does not include the Pendleton factory; the Charleston manufacturing, which began operations at the end 796* VOL. XV.-57 STARS. Double and Binary Stars. The principal recent discoveries of double stars have been by Mr. E. W. Burnham of Chicago, who has prepared an extensive catalogue of double stars, and is actively engaged in measures. Minor lists of new doubles have been published by Prof. Stone of Cincinnati and others. M. Flammarion of Paris, and Messrs. Gledhill, Crossley, and Wilson of England, have published valuable compendiums on the subject of double and binary stars in general. M. Dunér of Lund has published the results of nine years of observation on the double stars discovered by the elder Struve. The work extends over the years 1867-'75, and embraces 2,679 observations. A pretty full discussion of the earlier observations is given, and from his results it follows that there are 8 of Struve's stars which since the original discovery have made a complete revolution; 8 which have moved through half a revolution, or 180°; 8 which have moved through 90°; 16 which have moved through 30°; 48 which have moved through 10°; and 59 which are certainly in motion. That is, 147 stars of this list are certainly binary. Vol. i. of the publications of the Dun-Echt observatory (Lord Lindsay) supplies the place of a general catalogue of the double stars of W. Struve. It is a collection of all the doubles discovered by Struve (3,000 or more), arranged in one order, with details regarding each star. The most noted multiple star is the system of four bright stars and two fainter ones, critically situated in the centre of the great nebula of Orion. In 1877 Signor |