but has considerable tendency to recur.-Leprosy, elephantiasis Græcorum, now called lepra, belongs in this group of new formations; it is quite distinguished from the lepra of older writers, now called psoriasis, with which it has no connection. (See ELEPHANTIASIS, LEPRA, and LEPROSY.)-The next new growth is carcinoma or cancer. (See CANCER, and TUMOR.) With internal cancer we have little to do at the present writing; but there is a form of skin disease named epithelioma which must be noticed, inasmuch as it is regarded by many as the least expressed form of the cancerous state, though there is some doubt as to whether it should really be considered as having any connection with true cancer. Epithelioma often begins in a most insignificant manner. A little, hard, wart-like mass may remain for years without giving trouble; when later it gets scratched, a crust forms, which is picked off again and again, until the ulcer beneath widens and deepens, and acquires hard and everted edges; the sore progresses rapidly, and may cover a great surface, causing much pain and even destroying life. The most common location for epithelioma is about the face, although no portion of the body is exempt from it. The lower lip, especially in males who smoke, is a very common seat; also about the region of the eyes and temples. The name "rodent ulcer" is given to certain forms of this affection, especially about the upper part of the face, which have a tendency to produce deep destruction, and to have hard, everted edges, composed of many separate nodules. Epithelioma, if at all well developed, is always a serious affair, and should receive competent medical attention. In its early stages it is entirely curable by caustics or surgical operation, or both, when pushed far enough to completely destroy the new growth and to reach healthy tissue; but imperfect destruction will be followed by a return of the disease. When the new growth has invaded large surfaces, operative interference seems almost useless, for it is very difficult to secure healing of the wound left without a reproduction of the diseased tissue. Internal medication, as also salves, &c., are impotent to cure the disease.-Sarcoma (see TUMORS), as applied to the skin, refers to the development in this tissue, or in the subcutaneous tissue, of one or many tumors of varying size, generally small, from the size of a large pea to that of a hickory nut, but which may become much larger. At first these tumors are freely movable, but soon the skin over them becomes adherent, and if irritated they may ulcerate. Sometimes they have a pigment element, and as they approach the surface the skin becomes bluish black. Unless irritated, sarcoma does not of itself give rise to much if any pain, but may and frequently does do harm, and even destroy life, by the very great development of this peculiar cellular deposit or formation, not only in the skin, but also in internal organs essential to life. SKOBELEFF, Mikhail Dimitriyevitch, a Russian general, born near Moscow in 1845. He grad uated at the military academy of St. Petersburg in 1864, and went to Turkistan, where he commanded a company of Cossacks. In 1871 he commanded a battalion of the line in the Caucasus, and was attached to the staff of the grand duke Michael. In 1873 he commanded the advance guard of Lomakin's column in the march upon Khiva, and displayed his independence by disobeying orders. He and the American correspondent McGahan risked their lives by remaining alone in the palace of the khan of Khiva to furnish a report to Gen. Kaufmann. Skobeleff afterward made a reconnoissance in disguise to the Turkoman desert, and for these displays of bravery received a decoration. In the campaign in Khokan (1875), where he served under his father and Gen. Trotzki, he was again one of the most enterprising officers, distinguishing himself at Makhram, at Andijan, and elsewhere, and was rewarded with the rank of general. When, in February, 1876, Khokan was annexed to Russia, he was made its governor. In 1877, in the war against Turkey, having joined the army of the grand duke Nicholas, Gen. Skobeleff served as a volunteer at the crossing of the Danube, swimming the river on horseback, and leading a bayonet charge. He next received command of a flying detachment, with which he took a gallant part in the attack on Plevna, July 30, entering the town and afterward covering the Russian retreat. The capture of Lovatz, Sept. 3, was due in great part to his bravery. In the attack on Plevna of Sept. 11 he was Imeritinski's chief of staff, and led four regiments, with which he captured and held for twenty-four hours two redoubts, being ultimately forced to retire with terrible loss. He was made a lieutenant general and chief of the 16th division. He was one of the principal leaders in the combined attack on the Shipka army, which resulted in its capture, Jan. 9, 1878. He commanded the advance on Adrianople, which he captured unopposed, and led the advance on Constantinople, occupying Tchatalja on Feb. 6. After the conclusion of peace he had charge of the retiring army; and in the summer of 1880 he was appointed to the command of a new expedition against the Tekke Turkomans. SMART, John, a British painter, born in Edinburgh about 1840. He received his education and has spent the greater part of his professional life in his native city. He has depicted chiefly the wild, barren scenery of the highlands, occasionally introducing cattle. He was elected a member of the Scottish royal academy in 1877. His works include "The Frist of Winter's Snaws," "Autumn, Glen Lyon,' "Drumharry," Head of Glen Ogle," "Hill Frank Clipping Day," "A Feeding Storm," "In the Pass of Lyon," "Far from the Busy World," "When Hill-taps a' were White," and "Halt of the Herd." His "Gloom 66 there. He was elected a member of the water- of Glen Ogle" was at the Philadelphia exhibi- | of his works at the water-color exhibitions tion of 1876. SMILLIE. I. James, an American engraver, born in Edinburgh in 1807. After working some time as an apprentice to silver and picture engravers, he was brought to America at the age of 14, and worked for his father and brothers, who established themselves as jewellers in Quebec. His skill attracted attention, and he was sent back to Edinburgh, where he remained five months under Andrew Wilson, and then returned to Quebec. In 1829 he settled in New York, where he has been largely connected with bank-note engraving. Among his best plates are: "The Convent Gate," after R. W. Weir; "Voyage of Life," after Cole; SONNTAG, William Louis, an American painter, "Rocky Mountains," after Bierstadt; "The born in Pennsylvania in 1822. He has followed Bay and Harbor of New York," after John J. his art in Cincinnati, in Italy, and in New Chapman; "Dover Plains," after A. B. Du-York, where he has lived since 1860. His rand; Evening in the New York Highlands," works include "The Progress of Civilization" after Weir; "Mount Washington, from Con- (comprising four paintings), "Alastor, or the way Valley," after John F. Kensett; "Ameri- Spirit of Solitude" (from Shelley), "The Eacan Harvesting," after J. F. Cropsey; and "The gle's Home," "The Dream of Italy," "The Land of the Cypress," after Huntington. II. Spirit of the Alleghanies," "A_View of the James D., an American painter, son of the Shenandoah," "Recollections of Italy," "Sunpreceding, born in New York in 1833. He set near Bethlehem, N. H.," "Sunset in the devoted himself to engraving until 1864, when Swamp, near the Coast of Maine," "The East he turned his attention to drawing and paint- River in February," "A View in Vermont,' ing, studying among the great mountain ranges "The Gulf," ," "Deserted," "A Passing Shower," of the United States. In 1862 he made a short "Clement's Brook, N. H.," "Hour after Sunvisit to Europe. He was president of the Amer- set" and "Hour before Sunrise" (on the Susican society of painters in water-colors from quehanna), "Among the Tangled Woods of 1873 to 1878, and has contributed regularly to New Hampshire," and "A View near Harits exhibitions and to those of the national per's Ferry, Va." His "Sunset in the Wilderacademy of design, of which he is an official ness" was at the centennial exhibition in Philamember. His works include "Evening among delphia in 1876. the Sierras of California," "The Lifting of the Clouds, White Mountains," "Dark against Day's Golden Death," and "Cedar Meadow, Poughkeepsie," all in oil; in water-colors, "A Scrub Race on the Western Prairies," and "The Track of the Torrent, Adirondacks." "The Scrub Race" and "A Study from Nature, Ausable River," were at the centennial exhibition in 1876. For "Picturesque America" he illustrated the Saguenay and the Yosemite, and also furnished the description of the latter. III. George H., an American painter, brother of the preceding, born in New York in 1840. At an early age he entered the studio of James M. Hart. In 1871 he made a trip to the Rocky mountains and the Yosemite valley, for the purpose of study and sketching; and in 1874 he visited Florida. His works include "Boquet River and Hills," "Under the Pines of the Yosemite" (water-color), "A Lake in the Woods," ," "A Florida Lagoon," "Hard Fare," "Late Autumn," and "A Goat Pasture." He sent his oil painting "Lake in the Woods" to the centennial exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876; also his two water-colors, "Sentinel Rock, Yosemite Valley," and "Study on the Ausable River, New York." SMITH, Francis Hopkinson, an American painter, born in Baltimore in 1838. He has made New York his home, and exhibited most SOUTH CAROLINA. The population of the state in 1880 was 995,577, of whom 490,403 were males, 505,169 females, 987,891 natives, 7,686 foreign, 391,105 whites, 604,332 colored, and 140 Chinese and Indians. The chief agricultural productions were 16,257 bushels of barley, 11,767,099 of corn, 2,715,505 of oats, 27,049 of rye, 962,358 of wheat, 2,706 tons of hay, 229 hogsheads of sugar, 138,944 gallons of molasses, 52,077,515 lbs. of rice (more than any other state), 522,548 bales of cotton, 144,942 bushels of Irish and 2,189,622 of sweet potatoes; number of horses, 60,660; 67,005 mules and asses, 24,507 working oxen, 139,881 milch cows, 199,321 other cattle, 118,889 sheep, and 628,198 swine; value of manufactures, $16,738,008.-The total bonded debt of the state, Oct. 31, 1882, was $6,571,825 43, made up as follows: Consols (valid).. State scrip, agricultural college.. To be funded for ante-bellum principal and in- To be funded for post-bellum principal and in- To be funded for "fundable interest To be funded for bills of the bank of the state. Total........ $5,429,928 54 501,992 24 191,800 00 168,924 47 178.512 50 105,289 63 378 00 $6,571,825 43 The annual interest on the above is $394,509 53. To pay this interest a tax is authorized profitably worked, chiefly by the students. -The number of persons in the state between the ages of 6 and 16 years is as follows: Male.. Total..... Whites. Total. Colored. 51.440 90,897 142,337 89,578 139,327 101,189 180,475 281,664 of 3 mills. The total value of the real property in the state is $85,384,863; personal property, $45,180,179; railroad property, $14,877,250; aggregate, $145,442,292. The revenues for current expenditures are derived from the net earnings of the penitentiary, which amounted in 1882 to $40,000; from the royalty on the Female. produce of the phosphate mines, amounting to $138,254; and from a general tax of one half of a mill on the dollar of taxable values. The The number of patients under treatment in total general tax amounts to 3% mills. After the insane asylum during 1882 was 755, mostly meeting all the demands of the fiscal year, maintained by the state. The receipts of the there is a cash balance in the treasury of $98,- asylum for the year-of which the state con017 47. During 1882 there was a marked in- tributed $114,315 92—were $119,868 63, and crease in the number of schools, in the number the expenses, including repairs, improvements, of teachers employed, in the school attendance, and extension of grounds, $119,466 20. The and in the school fund. The number of schools per capita cost of maintenance is $140. There is 3,183; of teachers employed, 3,413, of whom is a farm attached to the asylum. The pro1,287 were colored; of school attendance, 65,- portion of the colored to the white insane is 399 white and 80,575 colored. The school steadily increasing. The institution for the fund for 1882, the proceeds of a poll tax and blind is at Cedar Springs, Spartanburg co. a two-mill tax, is considerably in excess of that During 1882 62 pupils were in attendance. reported the previous year, which amounted to Steps have been taken to provide for the $452,965 44. The average length of the school colored deaf and dumb and blind children. session throughout the state has been four and On Nov. 1, 1882, there were 824 convicts in a half months. The South Carolina college and the penitentiary, of whom 778 were colored the state military academy have been placed, by and 46 white. Of these, 224 were leased to liberal appropriations by the general assembly, the phosphate-mining companies, 121 to the upon a broad and liberal basis, and have a large railroads, 25 were employed on the farm, and number of students. The college at Columbia 454 kept within the walls of the prison. From is endowed with the portion of the fund given 1868 to 1876 it required an average annual apby congress which is set apart for the benefit propriation of $62,800 to support the instituof white students. It was reorganized in the tion. It is now a source of profit. The departspring of 1882 by the establishment of five ad- ment of agriculture has only been established ditional professorships, making ten in all, one two years. It is maintained by the proceeds of of which is agriculture and horticulture. It a tax of 25 cts. a ton on the sale of commercial opened with 148 students. The military acad- fertilizers, which in 1882 realized $23,704. It is emy, closed since the war, was reopened on charged with the inspection and supervision of the 2d of October, the building having been the sale of fertilizers; with the duties of a fish restored to the state in March. There are commission; with the management of the state's 177 cadets in attendance, of whom 68-two interest in the phosphate mines; with the defrom each county-are maintained as bene-velopment of the agricultural and mechanical ficiaries, and are required for two years after interests of the state, and with the promotion their graduation to teach in the public schools of immigration. The following are the general of the county from which they receive their results of agricultural operations in South Carappointment. The other students pay $300 olina in 1882: There were planted in corn per annum. The academy has been made 1,356,305 acres, which yielded 17,045,735 bushby law a branch of the university. There are els, or 128 per acre. The increase in yield over also in active operation the college of Charles- that of 1881 was 110 per cent. The area in ton, Furman university at Greenville, Erskine oats was 362,373 acres, against 258,343 acres college at Due West, Wofford college at Spar- in 1881-an increase of 40 per cent. The yield tanburg, Newberry college at Newberry, and was 7,929,970 bushels, or an average of nearly Adger college at Walhalla. Claflin college, 22 bushels per acre-an increase as compared also a branch of the university, at Orangeburg, with 1881 of 170 per cent. The yield of wheat is set apart for colored students. It is en- increased 97 per cent. over that of the previous dowed with a portion of the fund given by year, averaging 9 bushels per acre. The incongress for the promotion of agriculture and crease in acreage was 20 per cent., or 34,846 the mechanic arts, with small aid to its normal acres. The yield of sugar-cane increased 146 school from the Peabody fund. There were per cent. The average product was 127 gal344 students in attendance in 1882, of whom lons of sirup an acre. The increase in the yield 24 were in the collegiate department, 136 in of sweet potatoes was 80 per cent.; average the normal school, and 184 in the grammar production, 95 bushels an acre. The acreage school. Both graduates and under-graduates in cotton decreased 3 per cent. as compared find ready employment in the public schools with 1881, yet the yield increased 114,500 bales for colored children in the state. A farm of of 500 lbs. each; an increase of 26 per cent. 150 acres is attached to the institution, and is The average product was 198 lbs. of lint-cotton per acre. sus of 1880, was: Charleston, 49,984; Columbia, 10,036; Greenville, 6,160. See map in supplement to Volume VII. The money value of the crops of of the year; or the Pelzer mills, which susSouth Carolina in 1882 exceeded that of 1881 pended for repairs and enlargement. The stock by $18,572,525. In addition to the increase in of all these factories, except five, is above par, other farm products, the record for the year and the stock of these five is at par. The divishows an increase of the crops of 1882 over dends range from 10 to 20 per cent. The state those of the preceding year of 28,193,277 has exempted capital invested in factories from lbs. of rice; 198,677 gallons of sorghum mo- all taxation, except the two-mill school tax, for lasses; 181,838 bushels of Irish potatoes; $42,- ten years. The legislature of 1882 granted 243 in sales of garden produce; 49,787 lbs. charters to nine new factories, with an aggreof honey; 324,056 lbs. of butter; 58,522 head gate capital of $1,725,000. At the beginning of poultry, and 179,626 dozen eggs. Twenty- of 1882 the debt of Charleston amounted to five per cent. of these large crops were fer- $4,264,050, being $500,000 less than in 1881. tilized with home-made composts, and 10 per The interest amounts to $183,474. Reduction cent. less commercial manures were purchased of principal and interest was not effected by than in 1881. The value of the excess of the scaling or readjusting, but by paying the prinproducts of 1882 over those of the previous cipal and by refunding the matured debt in year amounted to more than the entire value long-date non-taxable bonds bearing a low rate of the farm supplies bought in 1881. The of interest. The municipal government is now farmers sold large quantities of grain, and kept prohibited from contracting any debt in excess an abundance for home consumption. The most of the income of the current year, unless the valuable of the products of South Carolina are debt to be incurred shall be approved, first, by the apparently inexhaustible phosphate depos- a vote of two thirds of the city council; secits of the Charleston basin, whose value was ond, by two thirds of the voters of Charleston first discovered in 1867. In 1870 the shipments at a special election; and, third, by the general of phosphate rock were 1,989 tons; in 1882 assembly. The trade of Charleston, for the they were 140,772 tons. The royalty of $1 year ending Aug. 31, 1882, was $74,839,904, a ton constitutes about one fourth of the entire against $71,211,000 the preceding year.-The revenue of the state. The two systems pre-population of the principal places, by the cenvailing are known as "exclusive" and " general" rights. By exclusive right is meant such territory as the state has granted to be worked exclusively by the grantees. General rights permit holders to work in any streams not controlled by exclusive-right grants. The state's royalty from exclusive rights amounted in 1882 to $125,956 out of $138,254. Since 1870 the state has received from this source $948,852. The phosphates contain from 25 to 28 per cent. of phosphoric acid, equivalent to 55 or 60 per cent. of bone phosphate of lime. The mining companies, of which there are thirty-six, and the individuals engaged in this industry give employment to 2,500 persons, who receive annually at least $500,000. Large amounts are invested in the manufacture and manipulation of these phosphates by the Charleston fertilizer companies, of which there are twenty. The discovery of these deposits has added nearly $1,000,000 to the receipts of the treasury, brought $18,000,000 into the state, as capital, built up the port of Charleston, furnished freight and business for the railroads, and made an actual cash reduction of 25 per cent. in the general tax levy.-South Carolina ranks twentieth in the list of fish-producing states, with 1,005 fishermen, and products valued at $212,482. Her shrimp fisheries are nearly as great as those of all other states combined. The waterpower of South Carolina has been estimated at 3,000,000 horse-power, of which only 15,000 horse-power is used. The cotton mills contain 180,701 spindles and 4,120 looms, paid in wages during 1882 $728,900 to 4,262 hands, and have a capital of $4,547,000. This does not include the Pendleton factory; the Charleston manufacturing, which began operations at the end 796* VOL. XV.-57 STARS. - Double and Binary Stars. The principal recent discoveries of double stars have been by Mr. E. W. Burnham of Chicago, who has prepared an extensive catalogue of double stars, and is actively engaged in measures. Minor lists of new doubles have been published by Prof. Stone of Cincinnati and others. M. Flammarion of Paris, and Messrs. Gledhill, Crossley, and Wilson of England, have published valuable compendiums on the subject of double and binary stars in general. M. Dunér of Lund has published the results of nine years of observation on the double stars discovered by the elder Struve. The work extends over the years 1867-'75, and embraces 2,679 observations. A pretty full discussion of the earlier observations is given, and from his results it follows that there are 8 of Struve's stars which since the original discovery have made a complete revolution; 8 which have moved through half a revolution, or 180°; 8 which have moved through 90°; 16 which have moved through 30°; 48 which have moved through 10°; and 59 which are certainly in motion. That is, 147 stars of this list are certainly binary. Vol. i. of the publications of the Ďun-Echt observatory (Lord Lindsay) supplies the place of a general catalogue of the double stars of W. Struve. It is a collection of all the doubles discovered by Struve (3,000 or more), arranged in one order, with details regarding each star. The most noted multiple star is the system of four bright stars and two fainter ones, critically situated in the centre of the great nebula of Orion. In 1877 Signor Nobile of Naples gave a discussion of his mea- | relative motion. It may fairly be said to be sures of this system, and a comparison with established that this group constitutes a sideearlier observations by W. Struve and Liapo- real system. The following are the elements noff. Prof. Hall of Washington has made an of the more important binary stars. Eight elaborate two-years' series of measures on the have moved through an entire revolution since same system, which has been discussed by Prof. the first observation, and about 150 have moved Holden, who comes to the same result as that through an arc of over 10° since they were of Nobile and of W. Struve, viz., that the stars first observed. In the tables the semi-major of this system are physically connected and in axis, or mean distance, must be given in seca slow relative motion. O. Struve, in his last onds, since we have usually no data for fixing observations, gives a discussion of his own long its value in linear measures of any kind. Peseries of measures, and comes to the same con- riods of revolution exceeding 120 years are clusion as to physical connection, but not as to uncertain. -Stellar Parallax: Among the most important | Our countrymen, Dr. Rutherfurd of New York recent researches on the distance of the stars are those of Prof. Asaph Hall of the Washington observatory, who has found the parallax of a Lyra to be 0·180"±006, corresponding to a distance such that light would occupy 18 years in coming thence to the earth. Prof. Hall has also redetermined the parallax of 61 Cygni with the value of 0478" 014, corresponding to a light-distance of nearly 7 years.Clusters. Within a few years several important monographs of clusters of stars have been published. These usually give the relative positions of the stars of the cluster, and the absolute position of some one or more of the brighter stars, together with the magnitudes of the component stars. In future years these data can be again determined, and the question of change settled. To do this, extremely accurate determinations are now required. Special researches of this kind have been lately made by Wolf of Paris, Vogel of Potsdam, Koch of Hamburg, Valentiner of Mannheim, and others, by the usual micrometric measures. and Dr. Gould of Cordoba, Argentine Republic, have applied photography to the settlement of this question, and each of these gentlemen has secured a large number of negatives of clusters and smaller groups of stars. The positions of about 50 stars in the Pleiades were determined with great precision by Bessel, with the Königsberg heliometer. M. Wolf of Paris has made a further study of this important group by means of the ordinary filar micrometer, and has fixed the places and magnitudes of about 500 stars. His conclusions are, that the stars of this group are in fact physically connected, since he has found evidence of a proper motion common to all; and that many of the component stars are variable in brightness. No marked relative motion of stars within the group has been detected. The Savilian observatory is repeating Bessel's work with a new form of micrometer.-Proper Motion. Mr. E. J. Stone, Radcliffe observer, has pointed out facts which seem to indicate a past connection between four southern stars. These stars are: |