ing it, becoming more delicate toward the median line; between the two is found in the fossils a stony layer measuring their distance from each other; the lower surface was soft and membranous; the skin was undoubtedly cast as in other articulates, and Wahlenberg has suggested that some supposed new species may have been founded on their cast shells. They have been divided into three families, according to the nature of their covering: 1, eurypterida, without shell, including the single genus eurypterus (De Kay); 2, cytherinida, with bivalve, bean-shaped shell, including the single genus cytherina (Lam.); and 3, trilobita, with a shell having as many rings as there are joints to the body, containing many genera and species, and divided into two large groups, one with the power of rolling into a ball, like calymene, and the other with no such power, as in ogygia. According to Burmeister, the trilobites moved only by swimming, just below the Calymene. surface of the water, with the back downward, rolling into a ball when danger threatened from above, and did not creep upon the bottom; they lived in shallow water, near the coast, associating in immense numbers, chiefly of the same species; while only six or eight species occur in a given stratum, the number of individuals was very great; their food consisted of small aquatic animals and their spawn; they underwent progressive metamorphoses, and varied considerably according to age; their metamorphoses are given at length by Barrande, who makes four distinct types, according to the serial development of the different parts.-Trilobites are among the oldest of the articulata; though none are now living, during the paleozoic period they were very abundant, and almost the only representatives of their class. They have been most studied in Bohemia, and by M. Barrande. None are found above the carboniferous rocks, and only two or three in them. Barrande's primordial fauna, or the lower Silurian, has one genus but no species passing to his second fauna or middle Silurian, and this has many genera but no species common to it and the third fauna or upper Silurian, which in turn has several genera passing to the Devonian fauna-the whole series affording remarkable proofs of the limitations of faune in time; the distribution of particular genera and species in space was also very circumscribed, probably on account of their feeble locomotive powers. In America several trilobites, especially paradoxides and its allied genera, have been met with in slates formerly classed among the metamorphic rocks, as the P. Harlani (Green), found in Braintree, Mass., in 1856, by Prof. W. B. Rogers, and this and other trilobites found in Canada and Newfoundland.The trilobites have long attracted much interest, as well on account of the great numbers in which they have been found in many locali ties, as from their singular conformation, and the perfect state in which their forms are preserved. The eye is very beautiful, and its perfection in many of the stony fossils, especially some brought from the Hartz mountains, and from the upper Silurian limestone of Dudley, England, is very remarkable; the facets or lenses, sometimes nearly 400 in number, are like Paradoxides Harlani. those observed in the eye of the dragon fly and butterfly, and as in these insects are arranged around a conical tube through which the visual rays enter from almost every direction; in the asaphus caudatus each eye thus has a range of nearly three fourths of a circle, and both together command a panoramic view. The structure of the eye also indicates the prevalence in those ancient periods of the same conditions of the waters and the atmosphere, as regards their adaptation to the organs of vision, as now obtain.-The geographical range of trilobites is very extensive; these fossils are met with at most distant points, both of the southern and northern hemispheres; they are found all over northern Europe, and in numerous localities in North America, in the Andes of Bolivia, and at the Cape of Good Hope. Trenton Falls, N. Y., has afforded, in the limestone known by its name, fine specimens of the species calymene Blumenbachii (Brongn.). Lebanon, Ohio, is another interesting locality. Adams co., Ohio, Dr. Locke procured an isotelus, to which he gave the specific name megistos, that measured more than 20 in. in length and 12 in. in width; the I. gigas and paradoxides Harlani have been found more than 12 in. long. (See "American Journal of Science," 1871, p. 228, and 1872, p. 268.) In TRIMBLE, a N. county of Kentucky, bordering on the Ohio river; area, 150 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 5,577, of whom 456 were colored. The surface is generally hilly and the soil fertile. The chief productions in 1870 were 31,848 bushels of wheat, 209,060 of Indian corn, 38,216 of oats, 12,647 of potatoes, 658,465 lbs. of tobacco, 10,676 of wool, 24,370 of butter, and 1,268 tons of hay. There were 1,906 horses, 1,064 milch cows, 1,882 other cattle, 3,043 sheep, and 6,512 swine. Capital, Bedford. TRINCOMALEE, a town of Ceylon, in the N. E. part of the island, in lat. 8° 34' N., lon. 81° 12' E.; pop. about 20,000. It stands on the N. side of the entrance to a capacious and se Columbus in July, 1498, occupied by the Spaniards in the 16th century, captured by the French in 1676, but soon restored, and taken by the British in 1797. cure harbor at the foot of well wooded hills and two heights crowned by forts, besides which the port is defended by numerous fortifications which extend for about a mile along the shore. The inner harbor is landlocked, TRINITY (Gr. Tpiás, Lat. trinitas), a term of and has the advantage over all other harbors Christian theology denoting the coexistence in of India of being accessible to all descriptions the Godhead of three persons, distinguished of ships during both monsoons. The inhabi- from each other as the Father, the Son, and the tants are mostly of Tamil origin, from the S. Holy Ghost or Holy Spirit. The doctrine of the E. coast of India. The trade is of little im- Trinity is held by the Roman Catholic church, portance, but precious stones are found in the and by most of the Protestant and eastern neighborhood in considerable quantities.-The churches. The doctrine, it is contended, is Portuguese were the first European nation to contained in all its constitutive elements in form a settlement at Trincomalee. They were the Scriptures, and was gradually drawn up expelled by the Dutch, who were in turn driven into a systematic statement as the necessity out by the British in 1782; but an insufficient occurred of preserving or vindicating it in its garrison having been left for its defence, it integrity and purity. Supplementary to the was captured by the French, who restored it ecclesiastical form of the dogma itself are certo the Dutch. In 1795 the British again cap-tain theological explanations, throwing on it a tured it after a siege of three weeks, and it has since remained in their possession. TRINIDAD, one of the British West India islands, at the mouth of the gulf of Paria, off the N. E. coast of Venezuela, opposite the N. mouth of the Orinoco, between lat. 10° and 11° N. and lon. 61° and 62° W.; length N. and S. about 50 m., average breadth 35 m.; area, 1,755 sq. m.; pop. in 1871, 109,638. Its N. W. and S. W. extremities are within 7 and 13 m. respectively of the continent. There is excellent anchorage between the island and the mainland, and there are several good harbors. It is crossed by three ranges of hills from W. to E., extending through the centre, and bordering the S. and N. coasts, the northern range attaining an elevation of 3,000 ft. There are level and undulating tracts in the valleys, but in some places the surface is considerably broken, and it is drained by rivers with numerous tributaries. Much of Trinidad appears to have been formed by the mud deposited by the Orinoco. The mountains consist of clay and mica slate; and quartz, pyrites, arsenic, alum, sulphate of copper, graphite, and sulphur are found. In a volcanic district on the W. coast there is a celebrated asphalt lake. (See ASPHALTUM, and BITUMEN.) At Port of Spain, the capital, the temperature ranges between 74° and 86° in summer, and 70° and 81° in winter. The annual fall of rain is 65 inches; the island is beyond the range of hurricanes. The soil is fertile, and the elevated parts are covered with dense forests. The chief productions are sugar cane, coffee, and cacao; and cotton, indigo, tobacco, nutmegs, cinnamon, and cloves are raised. The indigenous animals are two species of small deer, the opossum, armadillo, porcupine, ant bear, sloth, muskrat, tiger cat, two species of lizards, and numerous monkeys. Fish are abundant. The settlements are chiefly on the N. W. coast and in the adjacent valley. A considerable trade is carried on with the United States in lumber and provisions. Trinidad is a crown colony, under a governor with executive and legislative councils.-The island was discovered by fuller light, derived from the teachings of early councils, the writings of the great church fathers, or the accepted scientific language of the schools. These regard the mode of origination of the second and third persons, the relations existing between the persons in the Trinity, and their distinctive characteristics and appellations. While the word Trinity is not to be found in the Bible, and while no passage can be adduced from the Old Testament in which the doctrine of the Trinity or its equivalent is distinctly and explicitly formulated, many texts have been quoted even by the earliest Christian writers which point to the existence of some form of plurality in the Godhead. These texts, however, being susceptible of various interpretations, are not produced as proving peremptorily the doctrine of a Trinity, but as foreshadowing the clear and distinct revelation believed to have been made in the New Testament. From it two large classes of texts are quoted as arguments for establishing the doctrine: those in which Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are mentioned in connection, and those in which these three subjects are mentioned separately, and in which their nature and mutual relation are more particularly described. The disputes about the tripersonality of the Godhead date from the apostolic age, and were occasioned chiefly by the prevalence of the Hellenistic and Gnostic theosophies. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch in the 2d century, used the word тpág, and its equivalent trinitas was first employed by Tertullian in the 3d century. During the anteNicene period there was uninterrupted controversy about this doctrine, principally in the East, and many opinions were proscribed by the church as heretical. Among them were those of the Ebionites, who regarded Jesus as a mere man; of the Sabellians, according to whom the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost were only the different forms in which the one God reveals himself to men; of the Arians, who taught that the Son was not coeternal with the Father, but created by him before the world, and therefore subordinate and in ferior to the Father; and of the Macedonians, who denied the personality of the Holy Ghost. The doctrine of the church was fixed by the councils of Nice (325) and Constantinople (381), which declared that the Son and Spirit are coequal with the Father in the divine unity, the Son eternally begotten by the Father, and the Spirit proceeding from the Father. The synod of Toledo (589) declared that the Holy Ghost proceeded also from the Son (filioque), and this addition was finally adopted throughout the Latin church; but the Greeks, though at first acquiescent and silent, at length protested against this change of the creed as an innovation, and the phrase filioque still remains one of the chief hindrances of a reunion between the Greek and Roman Catholic churches. The symbolic books of the Lutheran and Reformed churches retained the Roman Catholic doctrine of the Trinity unchanged; but it has been attacked ever since the 16th century, as contrary to both the Bible and sound reason, by a large number of theologians and by several new denominations, as the Socinians, the German theosophists (Weigel, Boehm, &c.), the Unitarians, and the Universalists. Swedenborg referred the Trinity to the person of Christ, teaching a trinity, not of persons, but of the person, by which he understood that that which is divine in the nature of Christ is the Father, that the divine which is united to the human is the Son, and the divine which proceeds from him is the Holy Spirit. The spread of rationalism in the Lutheran and Reformed churches undermined for some time the belief in the Trinity among a large number of German theologians. Kant held that Father, Son, and Spirit designate only three fundamental qualities in the Deity, power, wisdom, and love, or three agencies of God, creation, preservation, and government. Hegel and Schelling attempted to give to the doctrine of the Trinity a speculative basis; and after their example the modern dogmatic theology of Germany has in general undertaken a defence of the doctrine of the Trinity on speculative as well as theological grounds. Some supranaturalist theologians do not hold the strict doctrine of ecclesiastical orthodoxy, as defined by the councils of Nice and Constantinople, and the view of Sabellius especially has found in modern times many advocates. Exhaustive works on the history of the doctrine of the Trinity have been published by Baur (Die christliche Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit, Tübingen, 3 vols., 1841-3) and Meier (Die Lehre von der Trinität in historischer Entwickelung, Hamburg, 1844). See also Hodge, "Systematic Theology" (3 vols., New York, 1872-23). ern railroad passes through the W. part. The chief productions in 1870 were 94,240 bushels of Indian corn, 31,083 of sweet potatoes, 48,260 lbs. of butter, and 2,205 bales of cotton. There were 1,318 horses, 4,872 milch cows, 10,051 other cattle, 1,694 sheep, and 12,648 swine. Capital, Sumpter. II. A N. W. county of California, bounded E. by the Coast range, intersected by the Trinity, and drained by tributaries of Eel river; area, 1,800 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 3,213, of whom 1,099 were Chinese. The surface is generally hilly and in the E. part mountainous, Mt. Linn, the highest peak of the range, lying in the S. E. corner. There are extensive forests of fir, pine, and oak. Gold mining is prosecuted to a considerable extent, and other valuable minerals are found. The chief productions in 1870 were 9,898 bushels of wheat, 5,658 of potatoes, and 1,017 tons of hay. There were 185 horses, 425 milch cows, 1,283 other cattle, 371 swine, and 5 saw mills. Capital, Weaverville. TRINITY. I. A river of Texas, formed by the West fork and Elm fork, which rise near the N. boundary of the state, and, after a course of about 150 m. each, unite in Dallas co., whence the main stream flows in a tortuous but generally S. S. E. direction to the N. extremity of Galveston bay, about 35 m. from Galveston city. Its whole course lies through a valley of great fertility, occupied in part by extensive plantations of corn, cotton, rice, and sugar. The length of the main stream is about 550 m., of which about 250 m. is navigable. II. A river of California, rising in Trinity co., and flowing S. S. E., then S. W., and finally N. W. into the Klamath river, in lat. 41° 20' N. It is celebrated for its rich gold mines. TRINITY COLLEGE, an institution of learning in Hartford, Conn., under the control of the Protestant Episcopal church, chartered in 1823 and opened in 1824. Until 1845 its name was Washington college. Its presidents have been: 1824-31, the Rt. Rev. Thomas C. Brownell, D. D., bishop of Connecticut; 1831-'7, the Rev. N. S. Wheaton, D. D.; 1837-'48, the Rev. Silas Totten, D. D.; 1848-'53, the Rt. Rev. John Williams, D. D.; 1853-'60, the Rev. Daniel R. Goodwin, D. D.; 1861-'4, Samuel Eliot; 1864-'6, the Rt. Rev. J. B. Kerfoot, D. D.; 1867-'74, the Rev. Abner Jackson, D. D. Dr. Jackson was succeeded by the Rev. T. R. Pynchon, D.D., who still holds the office (1876). In 1872 the college grounds were sold for $600,000, to be used as a site for the new state capitol. Soon afterward the college purchased 78 acres within the city limits, a mile south of the old location. There is now in process of erection here an imposing college structure, in the form of a quadrangle TRINITY. I. An E. county of Texas, bound- 1,050 ft. long and 376 ft. wide, and encloed N. E. by the Neches and S. W. by the Trin- sing three courts containing an aggregate ity river, and drained by several creeks; area, of about four acres. It is in the early Eng945 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 4,141, of whom 1,084 lish style of architecture, with gateways and were colored. The surface is nearly level, and a noble tower and spire 240 ft. high. It will the soil fertile. The IIouston and Great North-comprise dormitories for 300 students, recita ministry. In 1875-'6 there were, besides the president, 8 professors, 8 other instructors, and 2 lecturers; the total number of students was 83. The course of instruction, in which all the studies are prescribed, occupies four years. Students may take special courses in studies pertaining to science, and on their completion receive the degree of bachelor of science. Besides 37 scholarships entitling the holders to free tuition, there are several which yield to needy students annual incomes ranging from $100 to $300. Nearly all of them are designed to aid students preparing for the ministry in the Protestant Episcopal church. The college has property amounting in 1875 to $1,068,296, a library of 18,000 volumes, exclusive of pamphlets and duplicates, and a valuable cabinet. Excepting $16,000 received from the state, the funds of the college have been contributed by individuals. A theological school was organized in 1851, and was continued for about three years, when the Berkeley divinity school at Middletown was established to take its place. TRIPANG. See SEA CUCUMBER. TRIPOLI, an earthy substance, originally procured from Tripoli in Africa, used as a polishing material, of fine sharp grain, yellowish gray or whitish, burning white. It consists almost entirely of silica, and when examined by the microscope is found to be composed of the exuviæ or skeletons of infusoria, the families of which are readily recognized. Specimens of it from Bilin and Franzensbad in Bohemia, Santafiora in Tuscany, and Mauritius have been examined by Ehrenberg. The sub stance has sometimes been confounded with the English rotten stone. TRIPOLI (called by the natives Tarabul). I. A country of N. Africa, forming one of the Barbary states, and a dependency of the Turkish empire, bounded N. by the Mediterranean, E. by Barca, S. by Fezzan and the desert of Sahara, and W. by the Sahara and Tunis, between lat. 28° and 33° 15' N., and lon. 10° and 20° E.; extreme length about 650 m., breadth from 130 to nearly 300 m.; area estimated at 125,000 sq. m.; pop. estimated at from 500,000 to 750,000. Including Barca and Fezzan, which are dependent states, the area of Tripoli is more than double that above given, and the population probably twice as large. Though the sea coast extends upward of 600 m., there is only one good harbor, that of Tripoli, in its entire length. In its E. part, between Cape Mesurata and the town of Benghazi in Barca, there is a vast indentation called by the ancients Syrtis Major, now the gulf of Sidra. (See SYRTIS.) A marshy tract 100 m. in length and varying in breadth from 2 to 40 m. extends parallel to the S. W. shore of the gulf. The western portion of the Tripolitan coast is low and sandy; but in the east it becomes higher, and has many rocky points that afford shelter to small craft, with good anchorage in some places. The soil is exceedingly porous, and most of the streams flow only during the rainy season. The interior of the country is imperfectly known. The N. E. part contains extensive tracts of barren sand, and partakes of the nature of the desert; but the S. part is traversed by the Black mountains, descending | poli, Lebda, and Mesurata or Misratah are in terraces which enclose fertile tracts. In the west two ranges of mountains, offsets of the Atlas, run nearly parallel with the sea, the N. range about 20 m. from the coast, and the S. 30 m. further inland. The former has a general height of about 2,000 ft., and is visible from the sea. These mountains are of volcanic origin, and many of the summits terminate in conical peaks. The space between the ranges contains many tracts of elevated table land, with a fertile soil produced by the decomposition of lava and basalt. Salt and sulphur are the only minerals obtained. Some of this land is carefully cultivated and irrigated. Abundant crops of grain are raised, and on the sides of the hills vines, olives, figs, almonds, and other fruits grow luxuriantly. There are extensive natural pastures upon which cattle are reared in great numbers. But the most fertile part of Tripoli is the country which surrounds the capital. This tract, about 5 m. broad, extends about 15 m. along the shore, and produces heavy crops of wheat, barley, millet, and maize. Dates and olives are grown, together with all the fruits of a temperate climate. The country S. of the plateaus contains very little productive land, and consists mainly of sand and gravel plains. The water, which is found only by digging from 100 to 200 ft., is bitter and brackish. In the few spots where grain can be raised there are villages, the inhabitants of which live in constant dread of the desert tribes. Rain falls abundantly in the N. part of the country from November to March, but during the rest of the year months often pass without a single shower, although there are copious dews in the summer, and the heat becomes very great, especially when the sirocco blows. In winter the weather is exceedingly variable, and frosts occur at night, while the temperature during the day often exceeds 70°. The horses of Tripoli are of a superior breed, and cattle are numerous on the table lands. Camels are extensively used as beasts of burden, and sheep and poultry are exported. Of wild animals the most common are wolves, foxes, hyenas, jackals, gazelles, antelopes, rabbits, hares, hedgehogs, and jerboas. Ostriches frequent the borders of the deserts, and most of the common birds of southern Europe are found. Bees are kept in large numbers, and the locusts which frequently visit the country in enormous swarms are utilized for food.-Tripoli contains numerous remains of antiquity, including ruins of Roman temples, theatres, and aqueducts. Many of these ruins have been buried deeply in the sand, but they can still be traced in the city of Tripoli and at other places. Coins, gems, and intaglios have been found in considerable numbers. - The population comprises Arabs, Moors, Turks, Mamelukes, Jews, and negro slaves. The Arabs form the greater part of the population in the country districts. The towns, of which Tri situated on the coast, are peopled mostly by Moors, Jews, and negro slaves. Some of the Arabs have fixed homes and reside in villages, but many of them are nomadic.—There are some manufactures of woollen goods, and cloth for tents is made of goats' hair. The trade of Tripoli is considerable. The exports by sea consist chiefly of wool, cattle, hides, gold dust, ostrich feathers, ivory, gum, dried fruits, saffron, senna, drugs, barilla, and sheep's fat; and the chief imports are clothes, spices, sugar, coffee, spirits, arms, cutlery, and hardware. In 1874 the exports to Great Britain were valued at £125,211, and the imports from that country at £238,257. Caravans arrive from the interior of Africa twice a year, and bring slaves, gold dust, and tropical commodities, which are exchanged for European goods. -The government of Tripoli is a pure despotism. The country in the wider sense is denominated a vilayet or province of Turkey, and its ruler is known as the bey. He is a pasha generally selected by the sultan from among the Turkish officers resident at the capital. In former times the revenue was chiefly derived from the prizes taken by corsairs, and the sale of captured Europeans into slavery; but since these sources were cut off, a. system of monopolies has been adopted. The bey of Fezzan and the sheikhs of Barca and some neighboring tribes pay tribute, and taxes are imposed on land, on Jews and merchants, and on exports and imports. A considerable number of Jews and Christians reside in Tripoli, but the dominant religion is Mohammedan. The temperance enjoined by the prophet is not practised. Wine shops are kept openly, and receive the sanction of the government by paying a heavy license fee. Education is neglected, and the people are ignorant and bigoted.-Tripoli was conquered by the Romans from the Carthaginians, and became a part of the Roman province of Africa under the name of Regio Syrtica. Its present appellation appears to have originated in a federation of three cities, Sabrata or Abrotonum, Ea, and Leptis Magna (the present Lebda), whence the region was called Tripolitana. It was conquered by the Vandals in the 5th century, and by the Mohammedans shortly after the death of Mohammed. After the division of the eastern caliphate Tripoli became an independent state. The capital was taken by Roger II. of Sicily in 1146, and retaken by Yakub and the fortifications destroyed in 1181. It was afterward subject to Tunis till about 1510, when it was conquered by the Spaniards; and it was ceded by the emperor Charles V. to the knights of St. John of Jerusalem in 1530. In 1551 the knights were expelled by Sultan Solyman II., and the tract of country which at present constitutes the vilayet was annexed to the city of Tripoli. The celebrated pirate Dragut, who had assisted at its capture, was made the first governor, and he initiated a |