national convention was held in Chicago in 1875. It resolved "to nominate and vote for such candidates only, state and national, as will unqualifiedly indorse and sustain the prohibition of the liquor traffic,” and “that whenever suitable nominations are not otherwise made, independent prohibition candidates be nominated." Political action was early taken by temperance organizations, many local officers being elected in various states as temperance candidates; and in 1854 the candidate of the temperance party for governor in New York, Myron H. Clark, was supported by the remnant of the whig party, and elected. In 1872 the Hon. James Black of Lancaster, Pa., was nominated for president, and received votes in New Hampshire, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan.-Total Abstinence Societies. The "Washingtonian Temperance Society" was formed in Baltimore, April 5, 1840, by six men of intemperate habits, who signed a pledge of total abstinence with the determination to urge others to do the same. The number of members rapidly increased, and at the first anniversary of the society more than 1,000 reformed drunkards marched in procession. Similar societies were formed in various parts of the United States, and speakers travelled through many states, advocating the cause. It is estimated that 150,000 decidedly intemperate men signed the pledge and gave up drink. The first division of the "Sons of Temperance was organized in New York city in 1842, by John W. and Isaac Oliver. The order increased with great rapidity, numerous divisions being organized in every state and territory, and in Canada and Great Britain. The strength of the order reached its maximum in 1850, when there were in the United States, Canada, and England 37 grand divisions and 6,097 subordinate divisions, with a total membership of 238,903. In 1873 there were 42 grand and 1,836 subordinate divisions, with 82,299 members; the number of members in Great Britain was 11,116. The basis of the organization is: 1, a strict adherence to the principles of total abstinence from all intoxicating drinks; 2, the payment of regular dues to form a common fund for coöperative temperance agitation, mutual aid in sickness and distress, and funeral expenses. The "Temple of Honor and Temperance was organized by prominent sons of temperance, and designed as a higher branch of that order. The first temple was instituted in New York city in 1845; a national temple was organized in 1846. In 1848 all connection with the sons of temperance was severed, and the temple of honor assumed an independent position. In 1855 there were 313 temples, with 13,860 members. In 1874 there were 20 grand temples, with 315 subordinate and 110 inner temples, the total membership being 16,923. The order stands firmly by total abstinence as the only rule of personal duty, and prohibition as the true policy of the state. The "Independent Order of Good Templars" was formed in 1852, on the basis of total abstinence from all intoxicating liquors as a beverage, and the absolute prohibition by law of the manufacture, importation, and sale of intoxicating liquors for beverages. The society has passwords, signs, grips, and signals. There are four degrees: the subordinate degree, degree of fidelity, degree of charity, and grand lodge degree. Each grand lodge is the head or legislative body of the state or territory where it exists, and is composed of representatives from the subordinate lodges within the jurisdiction. The grand lodges meet annually and elect representatives to form the right worthy grand lodge, whose province is to legislate upon all matters of general interest to the whole order. In 1875 there were 60 grand lodges within the jurisdiction of the order; there are grand lodges in Great Britain, Canada, Australia, and elsewhere, besides subordinate lodges in China, India, Japan, France, Germany, Holland, Portugal, Africa, and the West Indies. The total membership is estimated at 735,000. In England, where the order has its greatest numerical strength, there are 3,618 lodges, with 166,708 members.-Great Britain. The temperance movement in Great Britain was begun by John Dunlop, a justice of the peace for Renfrewshire, who devoted himself to the cause in Scotland in 1828, and in 1829 formed the first temperance society near Glasgow. The first total abstinence society was organized at Dunfermline in 1830. In Ireland the cause was first advocated by the Rev. George Whitmore Carr, who organized a society at New Ross, county Wexford, in 1829. The first total abstinence society was formed at Strabane in 1835. Father Theobald Mathew began his labors at Cork in 1838, and soon extended them not only to all parts of Ireland, but to England and Scotland. The total abstinence society formed by him in 1838 contained 1,800,000 members in 1840. The consumption of whiskey in Ireland decreased from 12,500,000 gallons in 1838 to 6,500,000 gallons in 1841. In 1843 the number of persons pledged to total abstinence exceeded 5,000,000. The active movement against intemperance in England began in 1830, when the first society was formed at Bradford by Henry Forbes, a merchant. Other societies were organized during the same year at Warrington, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds; and in 1831 the "British and Foreign Temperance Society" was formed, with a pledge "to abstain from distilled spirits except for medicinal purposes." This society, which had for its patron the bishop of London, and among its vice presidents bishops, admirals, and other persons of high official rank, held for many years a prominent place in the temperance movement. At first these societies did not oppose the moderate use of wine and malt liquors. The first total abstinence society in England was formed at Preston in 1832. TOTILA (properly BADUILA), a Gothic king of Italy, died A. D. 552. He was duke of Friuli, and was chosen king in 541, after the surrender of Vitiges to the Byzantine forces at Ravenna. When Belisarius was withdrawn from the service against the Goths, Totila overran the greater part of Italy, and in 546 entered Rome by the treachery of some Isaurian sentries. He held peaceful possession of the city until compelled to leave it in order to repair the reverses his armies had sustained in Lucania. In his absence Rome was recov In 1835 it was estimated that 48,000 persons | three Welsh counties; the "North of England had signed the pledge in England, and that Temperance League," with 125 societies in 2,000 drunkards had been reformed. In 1835 Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westthe "British Association for the Promotion moreland, and the Cleveland district of Yorkof Temperance" was formed in Manchester, shire; the "Irish Temperance League;" and the on the principle of total abstinence, and the "Scottish Temperance League," which in 1873 "British Teetotal Temperance Society" in had issued 70,000 volumes and 630,000 tracts, London; in 1836 the latter was united with besides a weekly and a monthly periodical. the "New British and Foreign Temperance The United Kingdom alliance has its executive Society for the Suppression of Intemperance." council resident in Manchester. England and Weekly meetings were held in various parts of Wales are divided into districts superintended London, with great success. The moderation by resident agents. Its operations also extend movement finally died out, and "teetotalism" to Scotland and Ireland in connection with the was firmly established as the best means of "Scottish Temperance and Permissive Bill Assuppressing intemperance. Up to 1839 the new sociation," the "Irish Temperance and PerBritish and foreign society had two pledges; in missive Bill League," and the "Irish Permisthat year the American pledge of total absti- sive Bill Association." The "National Assonence was adopted. In 1840 the two general ciation for promoting Amendment in the societies adopted the principle of total absti- Laws relating to the Liquor Traffic" directs nence, and the cause spread rapidly throughout its efforts toward obtaining amendments of the United Kingdom. At this time about 500,- license laws. Various enactments have been 000 members were enrolled in the societies of passed by parliament, and committees of inGreat Britain, while the adherents to total quiry appointed with the view of diminishing abstinence numbered more than 2,000,000. In the evils of intemperance. These efforts have 1842 the two parent societies in London were been directed toward the restriction of the dissolved, and the "National Temperance So- liquor traffic rather than its prohibition. ciety" was organized, which recognized all total abstinence societies, of whatever form of pledge. In 1843 Father Mathew visited London, and in six weeks administered the pledge to about 70,000 persons. In August, 1846, a world's temperance convention was held in London, and was attended by 300 delegates, including 25 from North America. The most marked progress was made by the temperance cause from 1851 to 1856. The "London Temperance League" held monthly meetings in Exeter hall, and free lectures were delivered in all parts of the city; 3,000 peti-ered by Belisarius, and in 547 Totila was retions were sent to parliament, and 30,000 tracts distributed. The "United Kingdom Alliance" was formed in 1853 for the "total and immediate suppression of the traffic in all intoxicating liquors as a beverage;" it has since prosecuted its labors with great vigor and success by means of lectures, petitions to parliament, publications, &c. The alliance has given its hearty support to the "permissive bill," which has often been brought forward in parliament in recent years, but without success. The object of the bill is to prohibit the granting of licenses to sell liquor whenever two thirds of the rate payers of any parish shall by vote so determine. Numerous organizations are now actively engaged in various parts of Great Britain in promoting the cause of temperance. Chief among these are: the "National Temperance League," formed in 1854 by a union of the national temperance society with the London temperance league; the "British Temperance League," whose operations are chiefly in Lancashire and Yorkshire, its headquarters being at Bolton; the "Western Temperance League," established in 1837 and reorganized in 1858, embracing 284 societies, the operations of which extend to nine English and pulsed in endeavoring to retake it. In 548 Belisarius was recalled to Constantinople, and Rome once more fell into the hands of Totila. In 552 Narses was sent into Italy by the emperor Justinian, and at Tagina in Umbria Totila's forces were defeated, and he was killed. TOUCAN, a name given to the scansorial birds of the family ramphastidæ, derived from the Brazilian imitation of their note. The family is remarkable for the disproportionate size of the bill, which is very light on account of its spongy texture; it is strengthened internally by a network of thin bony laminæ freely supplied with vessels and nerves; it is broad at the base, without a cere, smooth, with the culmen curved, sides compressed, tip hooked, and the sides serrated; the tongue is long and slender, provided with numerous barbs on each side directed forward; the bill is usually adorned with bright colors, which fade after death; the tarsi covered with transverse scutes, the quills almost concealed under the large coverts, the tail with ten feathers; claws curved and sharp; toes two before and two behind; orbital region naked; furcula of two bony pieces, thin and not united below, and sternum with two deep incisions on each side behind. They are peculiar to tropical America, living in flocks in the forest, where they make a great chattering as they hop from branch to branch in search of food; they feed principally on pulpy fruits, also on fish, eggs, larvæ, and small birds and reptiles; they also saw off the tubular corolla of flowers, picking out the insects with the horny, fimbriated tongue. When roosting they throw their tail upward and forward, and rest the enormous bill on the back. They are generally hand some birds, representing in America the hornbills of Asia and Africa; they are not power-yellow toucan (P. Humboldtii, Gould) is 17 in. ful fliers, and are strictly arboreal, hopping among the branches with such grace and agility as to have suggested for one of them the specific name of Ariel. The nest is in holes in trees, and the eggs are two, rounded and white. They post a sentinel while they feed, whose warning cry resembles the word tucano; the skin is bluish, and the flesh eatable though rather tough; they sometimes commit great havoc with fruit, and are often killed for food and for their brilliant feathers; they are very sensitive to cold.-In the toucans proper (ramphastos, Linn.) the bill is higher and wider than the forehead, looking as if too large for the head and belonging to another bird; the nostrils are hidden behind the prominent base; wings short and rounded, with the first four quills graduated and narrowed at the tip, and the fifth the longest; tail short and nearly even; feet short and stout; colors generally black with patches of white, red, and yellow, especially under the chin. The toco toucan (R. toco, Gmel.) is 17 in. long, and the bill is more than half of that length; plumage black with throat and rump white, vent red, bill orange red with black tip; it inhabits Guiana and Brazil. The yellow-breasted toucan (R. tucanus, Linn.) has a yellow throat, with red | er and sometimes not out of proportion to the head, as high as the forehead, with the nostrils conspicuous at the base; fourth, fifth, and sixth quills longest; tail long and graduated; the colors are usually green, with red or yellow on the breast. There are more than 30 species, with habits similar to those of the last genus. The aracari toucan (P. aracari, Illig.) is 17 in. long, with a bill of 4 in.; plumage blackish green, with yellowish abdomen, red median abdominal bar and ruinp; upper mandible with a longitudinal black stripe. The long, black and olive with a scarlet rump, and the under surface yellow; it is found on the upper Amazon.-For description and figures of this family, see Gould's "Monograph of the Ramphastida" (fol., London, 1834). TOUCH, the modification of the common sensibility of the body, especially seated in the skin, by which through physical contact we obtain an idea of resistance or weight, temperature, size, shape, smoothness or roughness, &c. It is most acute at the tips of the fingers, on the tongue, lips, portions of the mucous membrane, and the nipples, where the sensory papillæ are the most numerous, each one receiving one or more nerve fibres. The nerve fibres appear to terminate in what has been called the tactile corpuscle in the interior of the papilla. All the afferent nerves of the general integument apparently minister to the sense of touch, by virtue of their connection with the seat of common sensation in the brain; those of the lower extremities are less concerned in conveying sensations than those of the upper, though they are far more efficient in exciting the reflex action of the spinal cord. The acuteness of touch differs in various parts of the body, generally in proportion to their vascularity; the non-vascular parts, like the hair, nails, and teeth, have no sense of touch, while on the skin the nerves are spread in a minute network. Its relative acuteness has been measured by Weber, by placing the legs of a pair of compasses on the skin, and approximating them until brought within the smallest distance at which they could be felt as distinct points, and with the following results: the point of the tongue, line; palmar surface of third finger, 1 line; red surface of lips, 2 lines; tip of nose, 3 lines; edge of dorsum of tongue, 4 lines; skin of cheek, palm of hand, and end of great toe, 5 lines; back of hand, 8 to 14 lines; back of foot, 18 lines; over spine, and in middle of arm and thigh, 30 lines. There are considerable variations in this respect in different individuals. The feeling of tickling is most easily excited in parts having a feeble sense of touch, as the arm pits, sides below the Yellow Toucan (Pteroglossus Humboldtii). ribs, palms, and soles, while the sensitive points of the fingers cannot thus be affected. This vent and breast spot, and the rest of the plu- sense is exceedingly acute in the flying memmage black. There are more than a dozen oth-brane of the bats and in the whiskers of the er species. In the genus pteroglossus (Illig.), generally called aracaris, the bill is much small carnivora and rodents. It is combined with movement in the human hand, with its power of pronation and supination, opposability of the thumb, and great mobility of the fingers. The power of distinguishing the temperature of foreign bodies is restricted within certain rather narrow limits. We can perceive the temperature of a substance which is moderately warm or cool; but if it be either above or below a certain limit, we fail to judge accurately of its temperature, and receive only a painful sensation. If the foreign body be excessively hot or cold, as in the case of boiling water or frozen mercury, the discrimination of temperature is lost altogether, and the painful sensation is the same in either instance. Thus the touch of a very cold conducting body may be said to burn the fingers, like that of a very hot one. Cold, by retarding the capillary circulation and by its direct sedative influence, deadens the sense of touch; in like manner, pressure upon or disease of the nerve trunks, and various states of the brain receiving the sensory impressions, are accompanied by obtuseness of touch. Prominent among the causes acting on the nervous centres are the influence of toxic and anæsthetic agents, obstructed circulation, and chronic inflammations; on the other hand, irritation and acute inflammation in the course of the nerves, at their peripheral terminations, or in the centres, may be accompanied by hyperæsthesia or excessive sensitiveness of the surface. Subjective sensations, or those dependent on internal causes, are very common in the sense of touch; those of pleasure and pain, heat and cold, itching and creeping sensations, &c., are familiar examples. Touch may be greatly improved when the other senses are impaired or lost, partly from the greater attention given to the sensations, and the consequent increase of the power of discrimination. Instances of the education of this sense are very remarkable and well known in the blind. In the lower animals it is most acute in the hands, feet, and prehensile tail of monkeys; in the lips and tongue of herbivora; in the snout of the elephant, pig, tapir, and mole; in the flying membrane, ears, and nasal appendages of bats, which can perceive even the vibrations of air; in birds, in the under surface of the toes and their webs, and in the sensitive skin of the mandibles of the duck tribe and some waders; in the under surface of the toes in many lizards, in the extensile tongue of the chameleon and serpents, in the naked skin of batrachians, and in the thumbs of the males of the latter during the reproductive season; in the antennæ and palpi of articulates, in the oral appendages of mollusks, and in the tentacles of radiates. TOUL (ane. Tullum), a fortified town of French Lorraine, in the department of Meurtheet-Moselle, on the Moselle, 14 m. W. of Nancy; pop. in 1872, 6,584. It has a celebrated Gothic cathedral, and other notable buildings are the church of St. Genoult and the former episcopal palace, now used as a town hall. Its trade and industry embrace wine, glass, hosiery, and other local products and manufactures.-Originally it belonged to Belgic Gaul, and afterward successively to Austrasia, to local counts, and to Germany as an imperial city under the protectorate of the dukes of Lorraine; and in the middle of the 16th century it was annexed to France. The bishopric, established early in the 5th century, was suppressed during the revolution. In January, 1814, Toul was stormed by the Russians; and in 1870 it was bombarded by the Germans, to whom it surrendered Sept. 23, after a strenuous defence. TOULMIN, Camilla. See CROSLAND. TOULMIN, Joshua, an English clergyman, born in London, May 11, 1740, died in Birmingham, July 23, 1815. He was educated at a dissenting academy, and became pastor of a dissenting congregation in Colyton, and in 1765 of a Baptist congregation in Taunton, where he was also a bookseller. He subsequently adopted Unitarian opinions, received the degree of D. D. from Harvard college in 1794, and in 1804 was chosen one of the ministers of the Unitarian congregation at Birmingham, formerly presided over by Dr. Priestley, which post he retained till his death. His principal publications are: "Sermons to Youth" (12mo, Honiton, 1770); "Memoirs of Socinus" (1777); "Letter to Dr. John Sturges on the Church Establishment" (1782); "Dissertations on the Internal Evidences of Christianity" (1785); "Review of the Life, Character, and Writings of John Biddle, M.A." (1789); an edition of Neal's " History of the Puritans," with notes and additions (5 vols., 1794-7; 3 vols., 1837); "Biographical Tribute to the Memory of Dr. Priestley" (1804); "Memoirs of the Rev. Samuel Bourne" (1809); and a "Historical View of the State of the Protestant Dissenters in England" (1814). Theophilus Browne edited and published 22 of his posthumous discourses (8vo, Birmingham, 1818). TOULON, a seaport city of France, in the department of Var, Provence, at the head of a double bay of the Mediterranean, in lat. 43° 7′ N., lon. 5° 56' E., 30 m. S. E. of Marseilles; pop. in 1872, 69,127. It stands upon ground which rises gradually from the sea, and is sheltered by a ridge of mountains, extending round the bay. A tongue of land stretches nearly across the entrance of the bay, and, together with all the adjacent points, is strongly fortified. The city has been much enlarged within the last generation, and the new northern quarter is a great improvement upon the old parts of the town. It is especially rich in fountains, trees, and promenades. The cathedral and other old and new churches, the fine town hall, the military and naval schools, as well as the new palace of justice and the new theatre, are all eclipsed by the magnitude of the military port. It is the largest in the Mediterranean and one of the most admirable of the kind, extending over 240 acres, and surrounded by vast buildings, the arsenal, and floating docks, and connected with the supplementary arsenals of Cas tigneau and Mourillon; and it contains a ba- | lon. Ship building is largely carried on, but gnio for prisoners sentenced to transportation. The adjoining commercial port is bounded by a quay, which is the most active part of Tou trade and industry are chiefly supported by the military and naval works, which employ 10,000 men.-Toulon was known as a harbor cens. Toulon. under the Romans, then called Telo Martius. In the middle ages it suffered from the SaraThe fortifications were first projected as a defence against pirates. Under Louis XIV. they became celebrated, withstanding in 1707 a combined attack by the English and Dutch fleets and a land army under Prince Eugene; and they were extended under Napoleon III. In 1793 the English gained possession of Toulon, but were besieged by the troops of the convention, and finally driven out (Dec. 19), under the direction of Bonaparte, who first established his reputation on this occasion. In revenge for the previous surrender of the royalist inhabitants to a foreign power, the town was given up to pillage and massacre. TOULOUSE (anc. Tolosa), a city of France, in Languedoc, capital of the department of HauteGaronne, on the Garonne, 130 m. S. E. of Bordeaux; pop. in 1872, 124,852. It includes an island in the river, and the suburb of St. Cyprien, where 25,000 workmen resided before its destruction by the floods of 1875. It is more remarkable for historical associations and for its active industry than for external attractions. The square is called after the capitol or town hall, where the once famous floral games are still annually held under the auspices of a literary society. The church of St. Sernin is more remarkable than the cathedral, and is a masterpiece of Romanesque architecture, recently restored by Viollet-Leduc. The church of the Cordeliers, of the 13th century, was destroyed by fire in 1871. Toulouse has one of the richest museums of art, located in a former monastery, and various learned institutions, a public library of 60,000 volumes, an observatory, and an arsenal. The palace of justice was formerly the seat of the Toulouse parliament. The trade with both the Mediterranean and the Atlantic is active. Woollen and cotton goods, cutlery, hardware, and many other articles are manufactured.-Toulouse is of great |