Great Britain, lying between Virgin Gorda and St. John's, in lat. 18° 24′ N., lon. 64° 32' W.; area, 26 sq. m.; pop. about 4,000. It is 12 m. long by 2 to 4 m. broad, and has a rough surface, rising to the height of over 1,600 ft. On the north, at Tortola, the chief town, is an excellent land-locked harbor. It exports sugar, molasses, rum, and copper ore. It is the seat of the lieutenant governor and the administrative council. The climate is unhealthful. (See VIRGIN ISLANDS.) TORTOSA (anc. Dertosa), a walled city of Catalonia, Spain, in the province and 41 m. S. W. of the city of Tarragona, on the left bank of the Ebro; pop. about 25,000. It is on the slope of a hill, and is entered by three gates; the streets are narrow, ill paved, and some of them very steep. It has a Gothic cathedral, a theological seminary, and numerous churches and schools. Cotton and linen goods, glass, earthenware, cordage, wax candles, leather, soap, brandy, starch, and baskets are manufactured. The river is navigable for vessels of 100 tons, and there is considerable trade. There are quarries of valuable marble, known as Tortosa jasper, about 3 m. from the city. The town enjoyed the privilege of a Roman municipium. It was early taken by the Moors, but was wrested from them in 811 by Louis le Débonnaire. They afterward retook it, and it became a harbor of pirates. A crusade was proclaimed against it in 1148 by Pope Eugenius III., and it was captured. The Moors made desperate efforts to retake it, but the Christian women defended the walls while the men sallied out and put the besiegers to flight. Many privileges were conferred upon the women for their bravery, and in 1170 the military order of La Hacha, or the Flambeau, was instituted for them. The French took Tortosa in 1708, and again at the beginning of 1811. TORTUGAS. I. See DRY TORTUGAS. II. An island of the West Indies, off the N. E. coast of Cuba, from which it is separated only by a narrow channel called El Savinal. It forms the entrance to the harbor of Nuevitas, and is about 25 m. long from N. W. to S. E. and 6 m. wide. Several smaller islands are called Tortuga or Tortue (Sp. and Fr., a tortoise) from their shape, or from abounding in tortoises. TORTURE, properly, an infliction of severe pain upon an accused person to induce a confession of guilt, or upon a criminal to extort a revelation of his accomplices. The term is frequently used carelessly to designate severe and unusual punishment inflicted for crime, but improperly, as it is never spoken of by judicial writers as a punishment. By legal writers on the continent of Europe and the earlier English authors, the word question (Lat. quæstio, a seeking) is used as a synonyme of torture; the object being a search for the truth in regard to the criminality of the tortured person, or the names of his accomplices, by the compulsion of suffering. Torture was divided as to intensity into the "question ordinary," a com paratively mild application of the instruments used in torturing, and the "question extraordinary," where these means were used to the greatest extent compatible with the preservation of life. The threats of torture were divided into "verbal territion," when the executioner described the torture, and "real territion," when the victim was placed upon the rack but not tortured. As to the time of its application, it was called the "question preparatory when used for the purpose of compelling the accused to confess his own crime, and the "question préalable or preliminary " when applied to extort from a criminal the revelation of his accomplices.-Torture seems to have been early practised as a means of discovering guilt, both judicially and privately, but was not inflicted on freemen or citizens till the time of the Roman emperors, except in cases of suspected crime against the state itself. The Greeks inflicted it on their slaves, and after their subjugation by the Romans it was inflicted on those who had not a claim to the name of Roman citizen; the oath of the citizen was considered sufficient. Under the emperors this distinction was not long continued, and men and women even of patrician birth were subjected to torture to compel confession of crimes existing only in the imagination of tyrants. Wherever the code of Justinian was adopted as the basis of the legal system of European nations during the middle ages, judicial torture formed a feature of the examination of persons accused of crime; in the Teutonic nations it gradually took the place of ordeals and the trial by battle. In England it was probably never considered a part of the common law, though the peine forte et dure, which was used to compel a prisoner to plead to the indictment, had certainly some countenance from that law. (See PEINE FORTE ET DURE.) But it was recognized as one of the prerogatives of the crown to order it, and was thus in occasional use up to 1640, when the last case occurred. Severe and cruel as were the punishments inflicted by the ecclesiastical law, there is no evidence of a resort to "the question" by the inquisition or any other ecclesiastical court before 1252, when Innocent IV. called upon the civil arm to use it to induce confessions and accusations by offenders. Not long after this period the necessity of secrecy in the proceedings of the inquisition led to its extensive adoption, and to refinements of cruelty in its use before unknown. Judicial torture continued in most of the European states till the latter part of the last century. In 1780 the "question preparatory" was discontinued by a decree of Louis XVI., and in 1789 torture in general was abolished throughout the French dominions. In Russia it was abolished in 1801. In Austria, Prussia, and Saxony it was suspended soon after the middle of the last century, but in several of the smaller German states it continued on the statute books till the present century. Thomasius, Hommel, Voltaire, Beccaria, and Howard were instrumental London, 1839); Maclaurin, "Introduction to Criminal Trials;" Augustin Nicolas, Si la torture est un moyen sûr à vérifier les crimes secrets (12mo, 1681); Reitemaier, Sur la question chez les Grecs et les Romains; and Mittermaier, Das Deutsche Strafverfahren, vol. i. TORY. See WHIG AND TORY. TOSCHI, Paolo, an Italian engraver, born in Parma about 1788, died there in 1854. He studied in Paris, returning in 1819 to Parma as director of the academy of fine arts. He was the first to engrave Correggio's frescoes, of which he completed 22 plates with the aid of his pupils, who continued the work after his death; the whole number is to be 48, and 18 additional had been finished in 1874. TOTAL ABSTINENCE. As early as 1639 a law was made in Massachusetts to restrain intemperate drinking, and similar laws were passed about the same time in Connecticut. In 1760 the religious societies began to protest against the use of liquors at funerals. In 1756 a duty was laid upon imported spirits in Pennsylvania for the purpose of diminishing their consumption, and in 1772 this act was extended to embrace spirits of domestic production. The first continental congress, in 1774, recommended "the several legislatures of the United States immediately to pass laws the most effectual for putting an immediate stop to the pernicious practice of distilling, by which the most extensive evils are likely to be derived if not quickly prevented." The first modern temperance society was formed in 1789 by 200 farmers of Litchfield, Conn., who, to discourage the use of spirituous liquors, "determined not to use any distilled liquors in doing their farm work the ensuing season." In December, 1790, the college of physicians in Philadelphia memorial in bringing about its discontinuance. In the congress "to impose such heavy duties upon distilled spirits as shall be effectual to restrain their intemperate use in our country." The Methodist church from its foundation in America took decided ground against the use and sale of liquors. In the latter part of the 18th century the clergy in general began to make active efforts against intemperance. The cause of temperance was also publicly advocated by philanthropists, chief among whom was Dr. Benjamin Rush. But the modern temperance movement may be said to date from 1811, when the efforts for the suppression of intemperance assumed an organized and systematic form, although for 25 years thereafter but limited results were apparent. In that year the general assembly of the Presbyterian church appointed a committee of seven ministers to devise measures for preventing the evils arising from the intemperate use of spirituous liquors. In 1812 this committee recommended that all Presbyterian ministers in the United States should deliver discourses on the evils of intemperance, and that extended efforts should be made to circulate addresses, sermons, tracts, and other printed matter on this subject. In June, 1811, the general association of Massachusetts appointed | stitution with a pledge of total abstinence. In a committee of four ministers and four laymen 1836 the state society of Pennsylvania, formed to cooperate with the committee of the gen- in 1827, adopted the pledge of "total abstieral assembly of the Presbyterian church and nence from all that can intoxicate." Demand the general association of Connecticut in de- was now made in all the states that higher vising measures for the promotion of temper- ground should be taken; yet few were preance. In 1813 this committee organized the pared to include malt liquors in the pledge, "Massachusetts Society for the Suppression believing that beer was necessary and beneof Intemperance," which in 1833 changed its ficial. The second national convention was name to that of the "Massachusetts Temper- held at Saratoga, N. Y., in 1836, when the ance Society," under which title it was incor- name of the United States temperance union porated in 1845 and still holds a corporate ex- was changed to that of the "American Temistence. In 1826 the "American Society for perance Union," with the design of admitting the Promotion of Temperance" was formed members from all parts of North America. in Boston, with Marcus Morton as president. The convention was attended by 348 delegates Dr. Justin Edwards of Andover, Mass., be- from 19 states and territories and from Cancame the corresponding secretary in 1829, and ada. The most marked feature of the protravelled extensively, preaching total absti- ceedings was the adoption of the principle of nence and organizing state and local societies. total abstinence from all intoxicating drinks as The five annual reports of the society written beverages. One of the earliest state societies by him are among the best contributions to the was that of Connecticut, organized in May, literature of this subject. In 1836 the society 1829. In the same year state temperance sobecame by change of name the "American cieties were formed in New Hampshire, VerTemperance Union," with the Rev. Dr. John mont, New York, Virginia, and Illinois. In Marsh as secretary. It was then established May, 1831, there were 19 state societies, with in Philadelphia, but in October, 1833, was re- 2,200 known local societies formed on the plan moved to New York. Although total absti- of total abstinence, and embracing more than nence was publicly advocated as early as 1820, 170,000 pledged members. In 1832 the war it was not till many years later that any of department abolished the "grog" ration, subthe temperance organizations insisted upon this stituting coffee and sugar.-As early as 1832 requirement. The object of the Massachusetts the license question began to be agitated, and a society, as set forth in its constitution, was strong public opinion against license laws was "to discountenance and suppress the too free soon formed. In 1837-'8 a bill introduced in use of ardent spirits." Neither the American the Maine legislature to repeal all license laws temperance society nor its auxiliaries opposed of the state, and to forbid the sale of ardent the use of wine, cider, or malt liquors. Total spirits as a beverage in less quantity than 28 abstinence from distilled spirits, except when gallons, was lost by one vote in the senate. In prescribed as a medicine, and moderation in Tennessee a law was passed repealing all acts the use of the less intoxicating drinks, were licensing tippling houses, and making the retailthe only general requirements. Many of the ing of spirits a misdemeanor punishable by fine earlier advocates of temperance, including at the discretion of the courts. In MassachuMathew Carey, encouraged the culture of the setts the sale of spirituous liquors in less quangrape and the use of wine as a preventive of tity than 15 gallons, except by physicians and intemperance. Dr. Marsh, in his "Fifty Years' apothecaries, was forbidden. Laws were also Tribute to the Cause of Temperance," says: passed in Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New "The first reformers built a brewery in Bos- Hampshire, either restricting the sale or leavton for the accommodation of members of the ing it to a vote of the people of each town temperance society." Even the first national whether liquor selling should be licensed. The temperance convention, which assembled in third national convention, composed of 560 delPhiladelphia in May, 1833, and was composed egates, assembled in July, 1841, and resolved of 400 delegates from 21 states, including a "that the license laws are at variance with all large number of clergymen of all denomina- true political economy, and one of the chief tions, simply took the ground that "the traffic supports of intemperance." Large convenin ardent spirits as a drink, and the use of it tions in Maine, New Hampshire, and Massaas such, are morally wrong, and ought to be chusetts declared against granting licenses, and abandoned throughout the world." Nothing in favor of providing by fine and imprisonwas said of total abstinence from other alco- ment for the effectual suppression of the traffic. holic beverages. At this convention the "Uni- In 1846 New York voted against license by a ted States Temperance Union" was formed, large majority. Vermont gave a majority of consisting of the officers of the American tem- 8,000 against license, and many towns in New perance society of Boston, 23 state societies, Hampshire voted against it. In Rhode Island and more than 7,000 minor associations. Its every town but three, and in Connecticut two object was, by diffusing information and exert-thirds of the towns, declared in favor of "no ing a moral influence, to extend the principles of temperance throughout the world. In 1833 the Massachusetts society adopted a new con license." In Pennsylvania 18 counties voted on the question, and generally against license. In Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Iowa, and Wis consin about half of the counties opposed it. The agitation of the question of license resulted in a strong public sentiment in favor of prohibition. In March, 1847, the supreme court of the United States unanimously decided that prohibitory laws "were not inconsistent with the constitution of the United States, nor with any acts of congress;" and that it was within the police powers of the states to restrain or prohibit the traffic in intoxicating drinks. Maine was the first state to prohibit by law the sale of strong drinks. A prohibitory law was enacted in that state in 1846, with only ordinary fines for its violation. The "Maine law," drafted by Gen. Neal Dow, provided for the seizure and destruction of liquors held for illegal sale; fine and imprisonment for the illegal manufacture or sale of liquors were prescribed in 1851. This law was repealed in 1856, and a stringent license law substituted; but after an experience of two years of license, with increase of poverty, crime, and public disorder, contrasted with the previous years of prohibition, an enactment was passed and submitted to the people, and prohibition again became the policy of the state, being ratified by a majority of 22,952. Delaware was the second state to enact a prohibitory law, which was submitted to the people and ratified in 1847; but in 1848 it was declared unconstitutional by the supreme court for being so submitted. In May, 1852, Rhode Island passed a prohibitory law, which was declared unconstitutional by Judge Curtis of the United States circuit court. It was amended in January, 1853, and was repealed in 1863. In 1865 a law was passed allowing town councils and boards of aldermen to grant or refuse licenses. In 1874 the license clause was repealed, and prohibition reenacted; but in June, 1875, the prohibitory clause was again repealed. Massachusetts passed a prohibitory law in 1852, which was declared unconstitutional in some of its provisions, and a new law was passed in 1855, which remained till 1868, when it was repealed and license substituted; but the prohibitory law was again enacted in 1869, cider being excepted. In 1870 the law was altered to allow the free sale of lager beer, ale, porter, and strong beer, in every town in the state where the citizens did not vote to prohibit it; but in 1871 the law was again changed so that malt liquors might not be sold in towns without a vote in its favor, cider being still exempt. In 1873 the beer clause was repealed, thus restoring the prohibition of both malt and spirituous liquors; but as apothecaries were permitted to sell, the law of 1855 and 1857 was not fully restored. In 1875 the prohibitory clause of the law was repealed, and license substituted. The Vermont legislature in 1852 passed a prohibitory law, which was ratified by the people in 1853, and still remains. In 1850 Michigan prohibited the sale of liquor by a constitutional provision; and in 1853 a prohibitory law was enacted and ratified by a popular majority of 20,000. In 1854 the law was pronounced unconstitutional by half of the judges of the supreme court, because it had been submitted to the people. The law was reenacted in 1855, and was changed seven times previous to 1875, when the prohibitory law was repealed and a tax law substituted. In 1853 Chief Justice Williams of Connnecticut drafted a prohibitory law, which was passed by the legislalature, but was vetoed by Governor Seymour. But in 1854 a bill was passed prohibiting the sale of liquors by a vote of 13 to 1 in the senate and 148 to 61 in the house. It was repealed in 1872. A prohibitory law was enacted in Indiana in 1853, with a clause providing for its submission to the people, which the supreme court pronounced unconstitutional. In 1855 another prohibitory law was passed, but it became null because the supreme court was equally divided as to its constitutionality. In Iowa a prohibitory law was passed by the legislature in 1855, and ratified by the people. This law still exists, with some modifications in regard to fermented liquors. The New York legislature passed a strong prohibitory law in 1854, which was vetoed by Governor Seymour. The next year the law was again passed, and its constitutionality was affirmed by the court of appeals in 1856. In New York city the mayor did not attempt to enforce it. New Hampshire passed a prohibitory law in 1855, which is still in force. Illinois also passed a prohibitory law, with a clause providing for submitting it to a vote of the people, by whom it was defeated.-The fourth national convention assembled in 1851 at Saratoga, and passed resolutions in favor of prohibitory laws, and advised that an appeal should be made to the people in states where the legislature would not enact such a law. The fifth convention, held in 1865, recommended the use of unfermented wine by the churches in the communion, deprecated the use of alcoholic liquors as a medicine, and urged the medical profession "to substitute other articles in the place of alcohol as far as in their judgment it can be wisely done." A committee appointed by this convention organized in 1865 the "National Temperance Society and Publication House," which has its headquarters in New York, and is engaged in the publication and distribution of temperance literature. The sixth convention, at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1868, urged the friends of the cause "to refuse to vote for any candidate who denies the application of the just powers of civil government to the suppression of the liquor traffic." The seventh convention, held at Saratoga in 1873, declared "that the time had arrived to introduce the temperance issue into state and national politics," and "to cooperate with existing party organizations where such will indorse the legislative policy of prohibition and nominate candidates pledged to its support, otherwise to organize and maintain separate independent party action." The eighth policy of the state. The "Independent Order of Good Templars" was formed in 1852, on the basis of total abstinence from all intoxicating liquors as a beverage, and the absolute prohibition by law of the manufacture, importation, and sale of intoxicating liquors for beverages. The society has passwords, signs, grips, and signals. There are four degrees: the subordinate degree, degree of fidelity, degree of charity, and grand lodge degree. Each grand lodge is the head or legislative body of the state or territory where it exists, and is composed of representatives from the subordinate lodges within the jurisdiction. The grand lodges meet annually and elect representatives to form the right worthy grand lodge, whose province is to legislate upon all matters of general interest to the whole order. In 1875 there were 60 grand lodges within the jurisdiction of the order; there are grand lodges in Great Britain, Canada, Australia, and elsewhere, besides subordinate lodges in China, India, Japan, France, Germany, Holland, Portugal, Africa, and the West Indies. The total membership is estimated at 735,000. In England, where the order has its greatest numerical strength, there are 3,618 lodges, with 166,708 members.-Great Britain. The temperance movement in Great Britain was begun by John Dunlop, a justice of the peace for Renfrewshire, who devoted himself to the cause in Scotland in 1828, and in 1829 formed the first temperance society near Glasgow. The first total abstinence society was organized at Dunfermline in 1830. In Ireland the cause was first advocated by the Rev. George Whitmore Carr, who organized a society at New Ross, county Wexford, in 1829. The first total abstinence society was formed at Strabane in 1835. Father Theobald Mathew began his labors at Cork in 1888, and soon extended them not only to all parts of Ireland, but to England and Scotland. The total abstinence society formed by him in 1838 contained 1,800,000 members in 1840. The con national convention was held in Chicago in 1875. It resolved "to nominate and vote for such candidates only, state and national, as will unqualifiedly indorse and sustain the prohibition of the liquor traffic," and "that whenever suitable nominations are not otherwise made, independent prohibition candidates be nominated." Political action was early taken by temperance organizations, many local officers being elected in various states as temperance candidates; and in 1854 the candidate of the temperance party for governor in New York, Myron H. Clark, was supported by the remnant of the whig party, and elected. In 1872 the Hon. James Black of Lancaster, Pa., was nominated for president, and received votes in New Hampshire, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Michigan.-Total Abstinence Societies. The "Washingtonian Temperance Society" was formed in Baltimore, April 5, 1840, by six men of intemperate habits, who signed a pledge of total abstinence with the determination to urge others to do the same. The number of members rapidly increased, and at the first anniversary of the society more than 1,000 reformed drunkards marched in procession. Similar societies were formed in various parts of the United States, and speakers travelled through many states, advocating the cause. It is estimated that 150,000 decidedly intemperate men signed the pledge and gave up drink. The first division of the "Sons of Temperance was organized in New York city in 1842, by John W. and Isaac Oliver. The order increased with great rapidity, numerous divisions being organized in every state and territory, and in Canada and Great Britain. The strength of the order reached its maximum in 1850, when there were in the United States, Canada, and England 37 grand divisions and 6,097 subordinate divisions, with a total membership of 238,903. In 1873 there were 42 grand and 1,836 subordinate divisions, with 82,299 members; the number of members in Great Britain was 11,116. The basis of the organiza-sumption of whiskey in Ireland decreased from tion is 1, a strict adherence to the principles of total abstinence from all intoxicating drinks; 2, the payment of regular dues to form a common fund for cooperative temperance agitation, mutual aid in sickness and distress, and funeral expenses. The "Temple of Honor and Temperance" was organized by prominent sons of temperance, and designed as a higher branch of that order. The first temple was instituted in New York city in 1845; a national temple was organized in 1846. In 1848 all connection with the sons of temperance was severed, and the temple of honor assumed an independent position. In 1855 there were 343 temples, with 13,860 members. In 1874 there were 20 grand temples, with 315 subordinate and 110 inner temples, the total membership being 16,923. The order stands firmly by total abstinence as the only rule of personal duty, and prohibition as the true 12,500,000 gallons in 1838 to 6,500,000 gallons in 1841. In 1843 the number of persons pledged to total abstinence exceeded 5,000,000. The active movement against intemperance in England began in 1830, when the first society was formed at Bradford by Henry Forbes, a merchant. Other societies were organized during the same year at Warrington, Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds; and in 1831 the "British and Foreign Temperance Society" was formed, with a pledge "to abstain from distilled spirits except for medicinal purposes." This society, which had for its patron the bishop of London, and among its vice presidents bishops, admirals, and other persons of high official rank, held for many years a prominent place in the temperance movement. At first these societies did not oppose the moderate use of wine and malt liquors. The first total abstinence society in England was formed at Preston in 1832. |