FIG. 5.-Ethmoid Bone, seen from behind. 1. Central lamella. 2. Cribriform plate. 8. Crista galli. 5, 6, 7. Lateral mass of left side. FIG. 6.-Hyoid or Tongue Bone, seen in front. 1. Body. 2, 2. Greater cornua. 8, 8. Lesser cornua. FIG. 7.-Palmar Surface of Right Carpus and Metacarpus. 1. Scaphoid bone. 2. Lunar. 8. Cuneiform. 4. Pisiform. 5. Trapezium. 6. Trapezoid. 7. Magnum. 8. Unciform. a, b, c, d, e. The five metacarpal bones. FIG. 8.-Tarsus and Metatarsus, forming Instep. 1. Astragalus. 2. Ós calcis. 8. Boat-shaped or scaphoid bone. 4. Cubold. 5. Internal cuneiform. 6. Middle cuneiform. 7. External cuneiform. a, b, c, d, e. The five metatarsal bones. cates with the nasal passage. The lachrymal bones are small oval plates situated at the inner angles of the orbits of the eyes. The palate bones are situated at the posterior part of the nasal passages, and enter into the formation of the roof of the month or palate and the back part of the floor of the orbits of the eyes. The lower jaw bone consists of a horizontal semicircular portion, having an alveolar process into which the lower teeth are set, and of a perpendicular portion, the ramus, divided into two branches, one of which terminates in the condyle to form the joint, and the other is the coronoid process, into which are inserted the fibres of the temporal muscle and a portion of those of the masseter, the two principal muscles of the jaw. The floor of the skull is divided into anterior, middle, and posterior fossa, the two first lodging the anterior and middle lobes of the cerebrum, and the posterior fosse lodging the cerebellum. (See BRAIN.) The bones of the trunk are 54 in number, viz.: the 24 bones called vertebræ, constituting, with the sacrum upon which they rest, the spinal column, 24 ribs, 4 pelvic bones, 1 sternum or breast bone, and 1 tongue bone. The two hip bones are naturally classified with the lower extremities, but as they are joined to the sacrum by immovable sutures, and form with it an important piece of animal mechanism, the pelvis, they are here included in the bones of the trunk. (See PELVIS.) The spinal or vertebral column, or backbone, forms the axis of the trunk, supporting it and the skull. All of the vertebræ but one have their principal features in common; i. e., they have a body, a spinous process, a spinal foramen for transmitting the spinal cord, and four articular processes, two superior and two inferior for articulating with each other. The spinous processes which project posteriorly together form the 66 spine," which marks the course of the spinal column. The uppermost vertebra, called the atlas, has no body, but its place is occupied by a tooth-like process of the bone next below, called the axis, around which the atlas turns. There are 7 cervical, 12 dorsal, and 5 lumbar vertebræ. The seventh cervical is peculiar from having a longer and more prominent spinous process than the others, which may be felt at the base of the neck. Between the bodies of the vertebræ are placed the elastic intervertebral cartilages, which permit flexion of the spinal column and prevent concussion of the spinal cord in walking and leaping. The ribs, 24 in number, are long flat bones of a semicircular form, and have an oblique position, their posterior extremities being higher than their anterior. The middle part of the curve is also depressed, so that the contraction of the respiratory muscles expands the cavity of the chest. There are 7 true and 5 false ribs on each side, the true ribs articulating with the sternum, while the false ribs lap on to each other, except the last two, which are free, and are called floating ribs. The sternum is a kind of breastplate, composed of three pieces, to which the collar bones and the ribs are attached. The tongue bone supports the root of the tongue and gives attachment to muscles for moving it. The upper extremities contain 64 bones, 32 on each side, in six divisions: 1, the shoulder; 2, the arm; 3, the forearm; 4, the wrist or carpus; 5, the palm or metacarpus; 6, the fingers or phalanges. The shoulder contains two bones, the scapula and clavicle. The scapula is a flat triangular bone situated at the upper and back part of the chest on each side. It is traversed on its posterior surface by a spine which terminates in the acromion process, the prominent point of the shoulder. Below the acromion process is the head of the scapula, containing a shallow cup called the glenoid cavity, which receives the head of the arm bone or humerus. The outer extremity of the collar bone or clavicle (Lat. clavis, a key) articulates with the acromion process, forming a kind of brace. The scapula is held to the trunk by powerful muscles, which allow of sufficient motion to give a variety of positions to the shoulder joint. The arm contains one bone, the humerus, the lower end of which by its expanded articular surface forms with the two bones of the forearm, the radius and ulna, the elbow joint. The wrist or carpus contains 8 bones (see fig. 6), the palm or metacarpus 5, and the fingers or phalanges 14, the first and second phalanx containing 5 each and the third 4. The apparatus of the forearm is a marvel of animal mechanism. The upper extremity of the ulna forms with the articular surface of the humerus a firm hinge joint, but the head of the radius forms with it a rotatory joint by which pronation and supination of the forearm and hand are effected with grace and facility. The lower extremities contain 60 bones, 30 in each limb, in six divisions: 1, the thigh bone or femur; 2, the knee pan or patella; 3, the two bones of the leg, the tibia and fibula; 4, the 7 bones of the ankle or tarsus; 5, the 5 bones of the metatarsus; and 6, the 14 bones of the toes or phalanges. The femur is the longest, largest, and strongest bone in the skeleton. Its upper extremity contains the head, which fits into the socket of the hip bone, and the neck, which joins the shaft of the bone at an angle of nearly 45°, the union being marked by two strong processes called the greater and lesser trochan- | ters, to which are attached strong muscles, the chief office of which is to rotate the thigh, and also to move it outward and inward. Its lower extremity is expanded like that of the humerus, and articulates with the head of the tibia, the principal bone of the leg. The tibia articulates at its lower extremity with the astragalus, the bone occupying the summit of the arch of the foot, and the latter rests upon the calcis or heel bone, into which the tendo Achillis, the tendon of the strong extensor muscles of the calf, is inserted. SKELTON, John, an English poet, born probably in Norfolk about 1460, died in Westminster, June 21, 1529. He graduated at Cambridge, entered holy orders, was tutor to the duke of York, afterward Henry VIII., became rector of Diss and curate of Trompington in 1504, and was appointed orator regius to Henry VIII. Anthony à Wood deemed him "fitter for the stage than for the pew or pulpit." He concealed the fact of his marriage, and was accused of keeping a concubine, and suspended by the bishop of Norwich. Among his writings are the drama "Magnyfycence," "The Bowge of Courte," Collyn Clout," and a dirge on "Phyllyp Sparowe." The best edition of his works is by the Rev. Alexander Dyce, with an account of his life (2 vols., London, 1843). SKERRYVORE. See LIGHTHOUSE, vol. x., p. 460. SKIDDAW, a mountain near the centre of Cumberland, England, 3,022 ft. in height. It has the lake of Bassenthwaite Water on its west. Though there are some mountains in the same county of greater elevation, Skiddaw is the most imposing, as it stands so as to be seen at one view from the base to the summit. SKIMMER (rhynchops, Linn.), a genus of webfooted birds of the gull family, and subfamily rhynchopsina. The bill is of singular shape, broad at the base, from which it is suddenly Black Skimmer (Rhynchops nigra). compressed laterally to the end; the upper mandible is considerably the shorter, curving gradually to the tip, which is pointed and grooved underneath; the lower mandible is straight and truncated, more compressed, with a sharp cutting edge received into the groove of the upper; nostrils basal; wings very long and narrow, with the first quill the longest; tail moderate and forked; tarsi longer than middle toe; feet very small, toes short with indented web, hind toe elevated, and claws curved and sharp. Three or four species are described; they are most abundant in the tropics, where they frequent quiet bays and inlets; they feed chiefly at night on fish and crustaceans, which they catch as they skim along close to the water, dipping the under mandible beneath the surface and closing the upper suddenly upon it when prey is encountered; the flight is swift, graceful, and undulating, and the gait awkward; they rarely if ever swim or rest upon the water. The best known species is the black skimmer (R. nigra, Linn.), found on the Atlantic and gulf coasts of North America from New Jersey to Texas, on the E. coast of South America as far as the tropic of Capricorn, and, according to Lesson, on the W. coast. The length is about 19 in. and the alar extent 48 in.; the general color above is deep brownish black; the front to the eyes, throat, and under parts white; inner tips of four inner primaries white, and secondaries broadly tipped with the same; the central tail feathers dark brown, the others mostly white; the bill carmine for the basal half, thence black to the end, the upper mandible about 34 in. and the lower 4; tarsi and feet red, and iris hazel; the female is smaller. They are nocturnal, resting by day on the sand bars, in large flocks. The nest is a slight hollow in the sand, and the eggs are usually three, 12 by 18 in., white with large black or dark patches; the female sits only at night or in wet and cold weather; the young closely resemble in color the sand upon which the nest is made; they migrate to the south when the young are able to fly; their eggs are as good as those of the gulls. This species is sometimes called razor-billed shearwater, and scissors-bill. Other species are found on the W. coast of Africa. SKIN, the external covering of the animal body, protecting the internal parts from external violence, and adapting itself by its elasticity to the various movements and changes of position; it also acts as the organ of touch, and as an excretory and absorbing surface. In the human skin, which may be taken as the type of that of the higher animals, the deepest portion is the corium, dermis, or cutis vera, as distinguished from the deciduous cuticle which overlies it, described under EPIDERMIS. This true skin is dense and tough, somewhat elastic, composed of fibres interlaced in all directions, in whose interstices are masses of fat; the whole rests upon a layer of subcutaneous areolar tissue; within and below it are the sudoriparous or sweat glands (see PERSPIRATION), the hair follicles (see HAIR), and the sebaceous glands. From its upper surface rise the sensitive papillæ, which are minute conical elevations, most numerous on the palmar surface of Vertical Section of the Skin, magnified. a. Epidermis. 6. Inferior layer of epidermis, or rete Malpighianum. c. Papillæ of the skin. d. Corium, or dermis. ef Lobules of adipose tissue. 7. Perspiratory glands. h. Ducts of the perspiratory glands. . Their external orifices. k. Hair follicle. 7. Hairs projecting from the skin. m. Hair papilla. n. Hair bulb. o. Shaft of hair in the hair follicle. p. Openings of the sebaceous glands. often be distinguished from them only by the nature of their oily secreted product; they are distributed over the whole surface of the body, being least abundant where the perspiratory glandulæ are most numerous, and vice 746 VOL. XV.-6 versa; they are absent on the palms and soles, but abundant on the face and scalp; they vary considerably in size, but the tubes are generally wider and straighter than those of the sweat glands; the structure is sometimes complicated. In the parts of the skin covered with hair, there is usually a pair of sebaceous ducts opening into the follicle of each hair. The object of their secretion is doubtless to prevent drying and cracking of the hair by the sun and air; this secretion is most abundant in tropical nations, and in some dark races has a characteristic odor, as in the case of the negro; its protective action in the tropics is often assisted by vegetable oils applied externally. The Meibomian glands on the edges of the eyelids are a double row of sebaceous follicles set along a straight duct; they secrete an oily matter for the lubrication of these parts, which in diseased conditions frequently sticks them together. Another modification of sebaceous glands is to be found in the external ear passage, where is secreted the cerumen or waxy matter; they consist here of long, highly contorted tubes, well supplied with blood vessels. The color of the skin depends on pigment cells mixed with the inferior epidermic ones, in what is called the rete mucosum, or mucous layer, and considered by Flourens and other authors as a distinct membrane; all the hues of the races of man depend on the relative abundance of these cells and the tint of the contained pigment. The folds of the skin are for the most part produced by the contractions of the superficial muscles. The skin is pierced at the eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, rectum, and genitourinary opening; it is continuous internally with the mucous membrane, consisting of the same elements modified according to the variety of functions to be performed; it is very vascular, and freely supplied with nerves and lymphatics. The skin is the seat of the sense of touch in man, though in most animals hairs, scales, bony or horny plates and envelopes, and shells, render it nearly insensible to external influences, this sense in them being confined to particular portions or projecting organs; even in man the sensibility varies much in different parts, being most acute at the ends of the fingers and on the lips, and dullest on the back and limbs. Aeration of the blood takes place to a certain extent through the skin, and in some naked-skinned fishes and batrachians this is a very important part of the respiratory process. It has been shown by experiment that in a frog, after the removal of the lungs, one fourth of a cubic inch of carbonic acid is exhaled from the skin in eight hours; in man the amount of this gas given off by the skin varies from to of that exhaled from the lungs; where the lungs perform their office imperfectly, the temperature of the skin is often high; in all febrile discases it should be kept moist. The absorbent powers of the skin are noticed under ABSORPTION. SKIN, Diseases of the. See supplement. SKINK, the common name of the scincida, | a family of lepidosaurian, slender-tongued lizards, with elongated cylindrical body, covered above and below by imbricated fish-like scales, arranged in quincunx and held in membranous sacs; they have no lateral folds. The family, by such forms as the seps and orvet, constitutes a connecting link between the saurians and ophidians. The head is covered with large angular plates, joined by their borders; the neck is of the same size as the chest; the tongue free, without sheath, slightly notched in front, with the surface mostly covered with papillæ; the scales are smooth. They creep with a lateral sinuous motion like serpents; they have no crests nor fringes on the neck, back, sides, or tail, the last being conical, and generally long and without spines; the feet (absent in some) are short and clumsy, with well developed digits and claws. The jaws are short and united at the symphysis, so that the opening of the mouth is always the same; the teeth are sharp and slender, suited for seizing insects and worms; in the snake-like forms only one lung is largely developed; the ears are exposed. They are generally small, and live in holes and under stones in dry sandy places; they are usually of an earthy gray color. They inhabit the torrid zone and the driest portions of temperate regions. Duméril makes three great divisions according to the differences in the covering of the eyes: 1, saurophthalmes, with lizard-like eyes, protected by two lids moving vertically; 2, ophiophthalmes, with a rudimentary lid, as in serpents; and 3, typhlophthalmes, in which the eyes are concealed under the skin. Most of the more than 30 genera, comprising more than 100 species, belong to the first division, the only one that need be treated here; some of them have four limbs, others two, others none. Dr. Gray divides them into scincina, with smooth scales, and tropidophorine, with Common Skink (Scincus officinalis). keeled scales. In the genus scincus (Fitz.) the snout is wedge-shaped, the upper jaw the longer, the teeth simple, conical, and obtuse, with a row on the palate; the limbs are four, with five nearly equal digits, flattened, and with serrated borders; the tail is conical and pointed. The common skink (S. officinalis, Laur.) is 8 or 9 in. long, with stout body, short thick limbs, and a proportionally short tail, very thick at the base; the eyes are small, high up and far back. The colors vary considerably, from silvery yellow to brownish, with seven or eight black transverse bands. It is a native of Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, and N. and W. Africa.-There are several American species of this family, most of which are popularly called "galliwasps," one of the best known of which belongs to the genus diploglossus (Wieg.), characterized by a tongue with scaly papillæ in front and filiform behind, toothless palate, flat head, obtuse muzzle, and flattened body; the feet have five unequal toes, compressed, without lateral edgings, and with tuberculose palms and soles; the scales are striated, and ridged in the middle; the tail is rounded, long and pointed, with a very large anal operculum. The great galliwasp (D. occiduus, Wieg.) is about 21 in. long, of which the tail is one half; it is one of the largest of the skinks. The color above is generally light brown, with a dozen or more transverse bands, sometimes darker and sometimes lighter, and yellowish white below with brownish tints. It is found in Jamaica, where it is very much dreaded, though it is perfectly harmless; it forms the type of Gray's genus celestus. The five-lined skink (euprepes quinquelineatus, Wagl.) is 10 to 11 in. long, the head pale red with six obscure white lines, the two internal confluent at the back part; the body above is olive brown, with five pale white longitudinal lines and a black lateral band; the tail brown, tinged with blue, and the lower surface white. There are no teeth on the palate, otherwise the characters are as in the last genus. It lives in the stumps of old trees in thick woods, not far from the ground, and is found from lat. 35° N. to the gulf of Mexico and west to the Mississippi river. SKINNER, Thomas Harvey, an American clergyman, born at Harvey's Neck, N. C., March 7, 1791, died in New York, Feb. 1, 1871. He graduated at Princeton college in 1809, was licensed to preach in December, 1812, and was a pastor in Philadelphia from 1813 to 1832, when he became professor of sacred rhetoric in Andover theological seminary. In 1835 he became pastor of the Mercer street Presbyterian church, New York, and in 1848 professor of sacred rhetoric and pastoral theology in the Union theological seminary. He published "Religion of the Bible" (1839); "Aids in Preaching and Hearing" (1839); "Hints to Christians" (1841); "Thoughts on Evangelizing the World; 99 66 Religious Life of Francis Markoe; ""Vinet's Pastoral Theology," and "Vinet's Homiletics," translated from the French (1854); and "Discussions in Theology " (1868). SKIPJACK. See BLUEFISH, and BONITO. SKOBELEFF, Mikhail. See supplement. SKRZYNECKI, Jan Boncza, a Polish soldier, born in Galicia in February, 1786, died in Cracow, Jan. 12, 1860. His military career began in 1806, and he distinguished himself in the Napoleonic wars, and after the Polish revolution of 1830 as brigadier general, especially at Dobre, Wawer, and Grochów (February and March, 1831). He then succeeded Radziwill as commander-in-chief; but waiting in vain for assistance from foreign powers, he failed to follow up his great advantages, and lost the battle of Ostrolenka, May 26. On Aug. 10 he was deposed, and after the fall of Warsaw (Sept. 8) he fled to Austria and next to Belgium. In the latter country he was appointed to a high command in the army, which however, owing to the protests of the eastern powers and the peace of 1839 with Holland, was of short duration. He remained in Brussels until shortly before his death, when he was permitted to return to Poland. Common Skua (Stercorarius catarractes). far as New York in summer and to the gulf of Mexico in winter; it breeds also in the Orkney and Shetland islands. SKULL. See COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, and SKELETON. some SKUA, the common name of the web-footed birds of the gull family, subfamily lestridina, and genus stercorarius (Briss.). The bill is strong, the basal half with a membranous or corneous cere distinct from the tip, the nostrils opening under it in advance of the middle of the bill; the tip is abruptly and strongly curved; the wings very long, the first quill SKULLCAP, the common name for plants of the longest; the tail wedge-shaped, the two the labiate family of the genus scutellaria, the central feathers projecting; tarsi strong, with botanical name being derived from Lat. scuprominent scales; claws sharp and curved, and tella, a dish, as the fruiting calyx has an apfeet fully webbed, with the hind toe short and pendage which closes it; this appendage has but little elevated; body full and stout. They also suggested the popular name skullcap. The inhabit the high latitudes of both the north- skullcaps are perennial herbs, destitute of ern and southern hemispheres; they chase the aromatic qualities usually found in the gulls and other marine birds, even the alba- order; they are widely distributed over the tross, forcing them to disgorge a part of their temperate and subtropical countries, and some food, and are hence called jagers or yagers; of the Mexithey feed also on the carcasses of cetaceans, can and South the eggs and young of sea birds, and the American spesmaller petrels. Their flight is elevated, rapid, cies are long sustained, and generally in circles, as in times met with birds of prey, which they represent among the as greenhouse natatores; the nests are made in company, of plants. Eight coarse grass, and are placed on rocks or sand, or ten species or in desolate heaths; the eggs are one or two. are found in our -The common skua (S. catarractes, Temm.), northern states. the largest species, is about 2 ft. long, with an The common alar extent of about 43 ft.; the bill is 24 in.; skullcap (S.galethe color above is dark brown, the feathers riculata), comtipped with gray; wings chocolate brown with mon also in the shafts and basal parts white; tail dark Europe, is very brown, white at the base; lower parts dark frequent in wet grayish brown; legs, feet, and bill black, the and shady plalatter with a tinge of bluish; the central tail ces, and is quite feathers project only an inch beyond the showy; it has others. The favorite haunts of this species had a medicinal are the seas of northern Europe, especially reputation, about the Orkney and Shetland islands, where has a still more great numbers are killed for their feathers; common species, it has been obtained on the California coast, S. lateriflora, and either this or a nearly allied species occurs which under the name of mad-dog skullcap about Cape Horn, the cape of Good Hope, was some years ago used as a pretended remeand in the antarctic seas. The arctic skua dy for hydrophobia. The plants are of inter{S. [lestris] parasiticus, Temm.) is 21 in. longest to the botanist, but of no medicinal value. as Common Skullcap (Scutellaria galericulata). |