cially fitted for this kind of attack have been | devised by many nations, but the same kind of torpedo may be used from any vessel possessing the requisite speed. The automatic fish torpedo, of which the Luppis Whitehead is most widely known, consists of a small cigarshaped boat a, fig. 3, carrying a contact torpedo in the bow, and containing an engine driven by some powerful agent, like compressed air, which, acting on the propeller b, gives it an effective range of about 300 yards. It is started usually from a large vessel, but sometimes from a launch or boat, and passing under water strikes and destroys the object of attack. Usually a directing tube is employed, but for simplicity the engraving shows a device sometimes used in experiments. The otter or Harvey torpedo is emphatically a sailor's wea

FIG. 3.-Luppis Whitehead Torpedo.

pon, requiring high nautical skill for its use. It consists of a thin vertical copper torpedo case, enclosed in wood, a a, fig. 4, and so attached to a tow rope, b, leading from a reel on deck through a leading block on the yardarm, as to diverge from the quarter of a fast vessel, whose duty it is to move rapidly past the enemy. The course is so directed as to bring the torpedo in contact and explode its charge under his bottom. This is accomplished by skilfully caus

ing the case to dive at the proper moment, by the slackening of the tow rope, and then, by suddenly checking the latter, making the torpedo rise and explode by contact, either through the agency of a contact fuse acted upon by the levers c c, or by electricity. The cork buoys d d are used to give the requisite flotation. Official trials in England have shown that when properly handled this is a most effec

tive weapon, and one which admits of use on the high seas as well as in harbors. Submarine rockets, in connection with submarine guns, are now receiving much attention. The design is to render it possible to attack the enemy under his armor by a movable torpedo, in a manner analogous to the ordinary fire of artillery in air. Experiments lead to the belief that this project will ultimately be successful, for the short ranges usual in the combats of armor-plated ships. Submarine torpedo boats

have been an object of study since the days of Bushnell; and, under the name of Davids, they played a conspicuous part during the civil war, in which the Housatonic was sunk off Charleston by a night attack of this description. The French plongeur is a more elaborate type of the same class. The general idea is to form a water-tight vessel, propelled by compressed air, which can be navigated under water to the enemy, there to deliver a blow through the agency of a contact torpedo. As success, and even failure, has heretofore often involved the lives of the crew, the project is not now regarded with much favor. Indeed, it may be said to be superseded by fish torpedoes controlled by electricity, which may be made equally effective without endangering the operators. This device consists essentially of an ordinary fish torpedo, which carries a coil of insulated wire to be paid out as it proceeds. One end of the wire remains with the operator, who can thus at will send a current of electricity, positive or negative, through certain electro-magnets in the fish,

causing a motion of the armatures in either of two directions. This enables him by ingenious devices to control valves which apply the motive power as desired, and thus start, stop, and steer the boat. The idea was first patented by Lieut. Col. Ballard, R. E., but it has been independently elaborated by Mr. Lay, by Mr. H. J. Smith of this country, and by Col. Scheliha in Russia. A modification of the idea has been made by Capt. Ericsson, who places his motive power (compressed air) with the operator, and supplies it to the fish through a flexible tube, thus enabling him to control both its speed and direction. The tube is drawn after the fish as it advances. This kind of torpedo seems to be especially fitted for use on shipboard, where the engines may be made to supply the compressed air, and where, by advancing upon the enemy, a short range can usually be secured.

TORQUATUS, Titas Manlius Imperiosus, a hero of Roman story, of the 4th century B. C. He was brought up in privacy in the country, on which account in 362 the tribune M. Pomponius charged his father, who was hated by the people for his haughtiness, with being a tyrannical parent. The young Manlius compelled Pomponius to withdraw his accusation; and this act of filial devotion so pleased the Romans that he was made the same year military tribune. In the Gallic invasion of 361 he slew in single combat a gigantic enemy on the bridge over the Anio upon the Salarian road, and took from his neck the chain (torques) and put it around his own; from which circumstance he was called Torquatus. In 353, though he had not yet held the consulship, he was made dictator in order to carry on the war against the Cærites and their allies, and in 349 was again made dictator for the purpose of holding the comitia. He was consul in 347, 344, and 340. In 340 his colleague was P. Decius Mus, and the two were appointed to carry on the war against the Latin league. While they were in the plain of Capua an order was issued forbidding all single encounters with the enemy; but Titus Manlius, the son of Torquatus, fought with Mettius Geminus of Tusculum, and slew him. Returning to the camp, he laid the spoils at his father's feet; but Torquatus assembled the soldiers in the prætorium, and in their presence his son was beheaded. The young men of Rome from that time regarded Torquatus with abhorrence. In this campaign a great victory was gained over the Latins at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius, and Torquatus returned to Rome in triumph. According to the Fasti, he was dictator again in 320, but the dates of his life vary in different authors.

TORQUAY, a town of England, in Devonshire, on a peninsula on the N. E. side of Tor bay, 167 m. W. S. W. of London; pop. in 1871, 21,657. It has two principal streets lined with substantial houses of limestone, with several fine churches, a town hall, theatre, numerous schools, assembly and reading rooms, a me

chanics' institute, and a public garden. Earthenware, yellow ochre, cider, and fish are exported. It has grown up within 50 years from a fishing village, and owes its progress mainly to its fine climate, making it a desirable health resort. Tor bay is a large and well protected harbor. William of Orange landed here in 1688. In the vicinity are the ruins of Torquay abbey, founded in 1196. About a mile from the town is Kent's hole, or cavern, in which have been found bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, bear, hyæna, and other animals now extinct in England. It has been penetrated to the depth of 600 ft., and scientific explorations are still in progress.

TORQUEMADA (Lat. TURRECREMATA), Juan de, a Spanish theologian, born at Valladolid in 1388, died in Rome, Sept. 26, 1468. He became a Dominican friar in 1403, accompanied his superior to the council of Constance in 1417, graduated in the university of Paris in 1424, taught theology there, and was successively chosen prior of the Dominican convents of Valladolid and Toledo. In 1431 he was appointed by Pope Eugenius IV. "master of the sacred palace," and his own theologian at the council of Basel. He there contributed to the solemn condemnation of the doctrines of Wycliffe and Huss, and maintained that the doctrine of the immaculate conception was divinely revealed. In 1439 he attended the council of Florence as papal commissary, and was foremost in drawing up the "articles of reunion" between the Greek and Latin churches, receiving on this occasion from the pope the title of "defender of the faith." He was made a cardinal on Dec. 18 of that year. In 1440 he attended in the pope's name at the national council of Bourges, where he succeeded in keeping the French prelates on the side of Eugenius IV. He became bishop of Palestrina in 1455, and of Sabina in 1464. His most important works are: Meditationes Joannis de Turrecremata posita et depicta de ipsius mandato in Ecclesiæ Ambitu Sancta Maria de Minerva (fol., Rome, 1467, with 34 engravings on wood); Expositio brevis et utilis super toto Psalterio (4to, Rome, 1470; fol., Augsburg, 1472, with many subsequent editions); Quæstiones Spiritualis Convivii delicias præferentes super Evangeliis (fol., Rome, 1477; Nuremberg, 1478); Commentarii in Decretum Gratiani (6 vols. fol., Lyons, 1519; Venice, 1578; 2 vols., Rome, 1726). Many of his works have not been published.

TORQUEMADA, Tomas de, the first Spanish inquisitor general, born at Torquemada about 1420, died in Ávila, Sept. 16, 1498. He became a Dominican and prior of the monastery of the Holy Cross in Segovia, and in 1483 was made inquisitor general for Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella, in which post he was confirmed by the pope on Oct. 17. From him the inquisition received its thorough organization. Tribunals were established at Seville, Cordova, Jaen, and Ciudad Real (later transferred to

Toledo), and a code was promulgated by which | the Spanish inquisition was afterward governed. Jews and Moors were expelled under his control, and he so multiplied autos de fe that Alexander VI. intervened and gave him four colleagues to moderate his zeal.

TORRES VEDRAS, a town of Portugal, 25 m. N. N. W. of Lisbon, on the left bank of the Sizandro; pop. about 4,200. Part of its ancient walls and an old fortress still remain. In the vicinity are an aqueduct with Gothic arches and the noted convent of Varratojo. It has four churches, two hospitals, a Latin school, and a considerable trade in wine. It gave its name to the defensive lines erected by Wellington in 1810 on a range of heights in its neighborhood, which took nearly a year for their completion, and set the army of Masséna at defiance.

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TORREY, John, an American botanist and chemist, born in New York, Aug. 15, 1796, died there, March 10, 1873. He graduated at the New York college of physicians and surgeons in 1818. While a student there he was one of the founders of the New York lyceum of natural history, of which he was for many years president. In 1824 he became professor of chemistry, mineralogy, and geology at West Point, and in 1827 was called to the chair of chemistry in the college of physicians and surgeons, which he held till 1854. He was also at the same time professor of chemistry in the college of New Jersey; and in 1836 he was appointed botanist of the geological survey of the state of New York. In 1854 he became United States assayer at New York, which office he held until his decease. Though better known as a botanist, he was a profound chemist, and was the frequent confidential adviser of the government, especially in matters relating to coinage and currency. Dr. Torrey's first publication was Catalogue of Plants growing spontaneously within Thirty Miles of the City of New York" (Albany, 1819). In 1824 he published the first volume of the "Flora of the Northern and Middle States." This was not continued, but in 1826 he gave in a "Compendium," in a condensed form, the materials he had accumulated. In 1838 he began the publication, in connection with Prof. Asa Gray, of the "Flora of North America," which appeared at intervals till 1843, when it was discontinued on account of the vast amount of new material brought to light by exploration. From 1822 to 1858 he prepared the botanical reports, some of them in connection with Dr. Gray, of most of the United States exploring expeditions. Among his other publications are " Cyperaces of North America" (1836), and "Flora of the State of New York," in the series of reports of the natural history survey of the state (2 vols. 4to, 1843-4). He was also the author of numerous botanical, chemical, and mineralogical papers in the "Smithsonian Contributions" and other scientific publications. His herbarium,

the result of 40 years' collection, and his botanical library, one of the most valuable in the country, were transferred to Columbia college some years before his death.

TORREYA, a genus of evergreen coniferous trees, named by Arnott in honor of Dr. John Torrey, from specimens collected in Florida by the late Mr. Croom. It belongs to the yew tribe of conifers, in which the fruit does not form a proper cone, but becomes a sort of fleshy fruit or drupe. The Florida species, T. taxifolia, is confined to a rather limited locality near Aspalaga, on the Appalachicola river, in middle Florida; it is 20 to 40 ft. high, with a trunk 6 to 18 in. through, and has much the general aspect of the common hemlock spruce (abies Canadensis). There was formerly a considerable forest of Torreyas, but all the trees not growing in inaccessible ravines have been used for lumber and steamboat fuel. The leaves, mostly in two rows, are about 1 in. long, thick, rigid, sharp-pointed, and rather light green; the flowers are dicecious, the fertile ones bearing a drupe about the size and shape of a small olive,

Torreya taxifolia. Leaves half the natural size; staminate and pistillate aments enlarged; fruit and a section reduced.

consisting of a hard nut surrounded by a thin pulp. The wood, which is very durable, gives off when sawed or burned a strong terebinthinate and somewhat unpleasant odor, on which account it was called in Florida "stinking cedar." The tree has proved hardy in the latitude of New York.-Not long after the discovery of the original species, Siebold and Zuccarini described T. nucifera, discovered in northern Japan, but cultivated in all parts of that country, where the oil obtained from its seeds is used for culinary purposes. Another species, discovered by Fortune in the mountains of northern China, and described as T. grandis, is a large fine tree, possibly not belonging to this genus. Among the wonderful stories told about California in the early days of its present era was the discovery of the nutmeg tree growing wild in the mountains, and the tree was mentioned as myristica Californi