official returns of exports show in each of these years less than $1,900,000, but they are imperfect. The customs revenue collected in the first of these years was $1,967,997 60, and in the last $1,293,644 34. The value of manufactures ac

of the benchers of the law society. There are 78 churches, the principal of which are St. James's cathedral, commenced in 1852, and recently completed by the erection of a spire 316 ft. high, at a cost of about $220,000; St. Michael's cathedral, Roman Catholic; the Metro-cording to the census of 1871 was $13,686,093, politan church, Methodist, costing $100,000; St. Andrew's, church of Scotland, $80,000; and the Baptist church. The two principal markets are the St. Lawrence and the St. Andrew's, the latter just completed.-Toronto has railroad communication with the United States and with the principal points of the provinces of Ontario and Quebec by means of the Grand Trunk, the Great Western, the Northern, the Toronto, Grey, and Bruce, and the Toronto and Nipissing lines. The imports for the year ending June 30, 1874, were $14,716,824, and for the next year $14,436,091. The

the chief items being furniture, boots and shoes, rail cars, ale, and whiskey. There are five banks having their headquarters in the city, and branches of five Quebec and Montreal banks. Besides the Toronto savings bank, the assistant receiver general's office, a branch of the Dominion treasury department, receives money on loan at interest; and there are numerous loan societies.-The city is divided into eight wards, each of which annually elects four aldermen, who are vested with legislative and executive powers, and can act as magistrates if possessed of a legal property qualification. The

mayor is annually elected by a vote of the rate payers. The assessed value of the real and personal property (not counting stocks in public companies) in 1873 was $44,765,000; in 1874, $43,462,512; in 1875, about $46,000,000. The taxes in 1874 yielded $608,475. The funded debt is about $5,000,000; and at the close of 1874 there was $258,293 to the credit of the sinking fund. The city has a fire alarm telegraph, a paid fire department, and street railways. The water works, which the corporation recently acquired from a private individual, are undergoing improvement and extension, at a cost that will exceed $2,000,000. The water is taken from the lake, and the sand of the island, across which it passes, is made to act as a filtering basin; the filtered water then passes across the bay in sunken pipes, and is pumped up to a reservoir on a height N. of the city. Among the charitable institutions

are the asylum for the insane, supported by grants of the provincial legislature, and accommodating about 700 patients; the city hospital, the resources of which, arising from an endowment of public lands, are supplemented by an annual legislative grant; a boys' home and a girls' home, for unprotected children; a newsboys' home; a home for female servants out of employment; a house of industry; a Protestant orphan asylum; and the house of providence, belonging to the Catholics, and mainly supported by them. There are a number of common schools, supported at a cost of about $40,000 a year, besides Roman Catholic separate schools. St. Michael's college (Roman Catholic) has not, like Trinity college, university powers. There are no strictly public libraries, but several semi-public ones, including the legislative library; the library in the normal school, intended for the council of public instruction;

Their electrical apparatus is analogous to the galvanic pile; John Hunter counted 1,200 columns in a very large fish, about 150 plates to the inch.-The American torpedo (T. occidentalis, Storer) attains a length of about 41 ft. and a width of 3 ft.; it is dark brown above with a few black dots, and white beneath; eyes very small, and spiracles directed outward and a little forward. In one specimen Prof. J. Wyman estimated the number of plates at between 250,000 and 300,000, about 1,200 prisms in each battery, each 1 to 2 in. in height, and

Osgoode Hall library; University college libra- | their flesh is eaten along the Mediterranean. ry; the Canadian institute (scientific) library; and the mechanics' institute library. Four newspapers are issued daily, and 17 weekly; and there are 15 literary, scientific, and theological magazines, 11 monthly, 4 bimonthly, and 1 quarterly.-The site of Toronto was selected by Governor Simcoe in 1794 as the seat of the provincial government; and here the capital of Upper Canada remained till 1841, when Upper and Lower Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) formed a legislative union. From 1849 to 1858 Toronto was alternately with Quebec the seat of the united government; and in 1867, when the confederation was formed, it became the permanent capital of the province of Ontario. It was taken by the Americans in 1813, and the legislative buildings and archives were burned. It was known as York till 1834, when it was incorporated as a city.

TORPEDO, the generic and popular name of the electric rays or skates of the family torpedinida. They were called vápкn by the Greeks and torpedo by the Latins; the Germans call them Krampffisch, the French torpille, and the English cramp fish and numb fish. The body is smooth and rounded; the tail short and thick, cylindrical at the end and keeled on the sides; teeth conical, sharp, and crowded; ventral fins immediately behind the pectorals, dorsals generally two and on the tail, and the caudal subtriangular. The electrical apparatus, which has given the name to the family, is arranged in two masses, one on each side of the skull, between this and the base of the pectorals; it is composed of a multitude of perpendicular gelatinous columns or hexagonal prisms, separated by membranous partitions containing a fluid, freely supplied with blood, and receiving very numerous nervous filaments from the par vagum and trifacial nerves. There are about 20 species, arranged in seven genera, in the seas of all parts of the world; the best known are the species of the Mediterranean and the W. coast of Europe, and of the Atlantic coast of North America, all belonging to the genus torpedo (Dum.), in which the mouth is crescentic, the teeth not extending outward beyond the margin of the lips, and spiracles distant from the eyes, with a circular fringe around the opening. The common torpedo of the Mediterranean (T. marmorata, Rud.; T. Galvanii, Bonap.) is sometimes of a uniform brown, but generally marbled or spotted with darker; it rarely attains greater dimensions than 4 by 24 ft., or a weight of more than 50 lbs. The spotted torpedo of the same sea (T. ocellata, Rud.; T. narke, Risso) is yellowish red, with one to five large, rounded, grayish blue spots, surrounded by a brownish circle, with a few whitish dots, and grayish white below. One (or both) of these species occurs on the W. coast of Europe as far as Great Britain, and also, it is said, in the Persian gulf and Indian ocean; they feed on small fish, keeping on the mud or sand at the bottom;

American Torpedo (Torpedo occidentalis).

containing about 100 plates to the inch; the interval between the plates was filled with an albuminous fluid, 90 per cent. water, containing common salt in solution; the ganglia from which the par vagum nerves arise are larger than the brain itself, indicating the great nervous power supplied to the battery.-See ELEOTRIO FISHES, and Leçons sur les phénomènes physiques des corps vivants, by C. Matteucci (Paris, 1847).

TORPEDO, a machine for destroying hostile shipping, ponton bridges, &c., through the agency of subaqueous explosions; that is, a military mine used under water. The germ of the device is to be found in floating powder vessels, which were first used at the siege of Antwerp in 1585, and received their latest application in the attempt upon Fort Fisher, N. C., during the late civil war. David Bushnell, a captain of engineers in the American revolutionary army, made the first practical application of the idea to ordinary warfare. He devised a submarine boat to carry a torpedo, charged with 150 lbs. of gunpowder, to be attached by a wood screw to the bottom of an enemy's vessel, and fired by a clockwork fuse. The first actual trial of the invention was made in 1776, when the boat, under the guidance of Sergeant Ezra Lee, was placed under the bottom of the Eagle, an English ship of war carrying the flag of Lord Howe, lying at anchor in New York harbor. But the sergeant found it impracticable to attach the torpedo, which was cut adrift, and soon exploded. In 1777 Capt. Bushnell directed a drifting percussion

torpedo against the frigate Cerberus, lying off | vised by Jacobi, was planted off Cronstadt and New London, and it destroyed a schooner moored alongside. Similar torpedoes were set adrift on the Delaware, but did no harm. (See BUSHNELL, DAVID.) Twenty years later Robert Fulton made vigorous attempts to bring the new weapon into notice, under the name of torpedo," then first applied by him. Unsuccessful in France, he went to England in 1804, and in 1805 was authorized to make an attempt to destroy the French fleet at Boulogne, which proved unsuccessful. In the same year he blew up the brig Dorothea, assigned to him for experimental trial, in the harbor of Deal. This was accomplished by two drifting torpedoes, which, connected by a rope, fouled the hawser; "and one of them, charged with 170 lbs. of powder, exploding by clockwork under her bottom, utterly destroyed her. Notwithstanding this triumph, motives of policy, resulting from their sovereignty of the sea, caused Fulton and his new weapon to be rejected by the English government; and he returned to America to encounter ultimately a like repulse, although in 1807 he repeated his experiment successfully in the harbor of New York. Fulton's system included four classes of torpedoes: buoyant mines, held in place by anchors, and provided with a mechanical device by which explosion ensued when they were struck by a vessel; line torpedoes, of the kind used in the destruction of the Dorothea; harpoon torpedoes, to be attached to the enemy's vessel by a harpoon shot from a gun, and then to be exploded by clockwork; and lastly "blockship torpedoes, to be carried on spars projecting from a peculiar kind of vessel, and exploded by contact with the enemy. Just before the close of the war of 1812 preparations were made for an extended use of torpedoes in the defence of our harbors. Col. Samuel Colt first practically applied electricity to the ignition of torpedoes. After experimenting for 14 years, and blowing up several vessels at anchor, he finally, on April 13, 1843, destroyed a brig under full sail on the Potomac, operating by electricity from a station in Alexandria, 5 m. distant. He elaborated a complete system of buoyant submarine mines, which were to be planted in groups quincuncially in the channel to be defended. To connect them with the shore he devised one of the very first insulated cables ever attempted, which was connected with a platinum wire fuse imbedded in a priming of gunpowder. He proposed to arrange a reflector to throw the image of the ship upon a map of the mines at the operator's station. This project, bearing the date of 1836, was discovered among Colt's papers after his death. Although much progress was made in submarine blasting, and an elaborate system of electrical submarine mines was prepared by Capt. Hennebert of the French engineers, no opportunity offered for the further use of torpedoes until the Anglo-French war with Russia. In 1855 a new kind of contact mine, de

at Sebastopol; explosions occurred under the frigates Merlin and Firefly, but did no serious damage. The Jacobi fuse consisted of a little bottle of sulphuric acid bedded in a mixture of potassium chlorate and sugar. This bottle being broken by the shock, an explosion ensued, which communicated with the charge and ignited the mine. Had not this engineer employed too small charges of powder (8 or 9 lbs.), his success would probably have been more marked. His system included electrical mines as well as mechanical. The destruction of the docks at Sebastopol was effected by the French engineers through the agency of submarine explosions, and the attention of all nations was thus again called to the subject. The result appeared in the defence of Venice in 1859 by Col. Von Ebner of the Austrian engineers, who originated a system more complete than any which had preceded it. During the civil war in the United States, when the confederates had no fleet, the southern ports and rivers were much exposed to attack, and this method of defence was largely used. The first torpedoes in position were discovered in Mud river, near Fort Pulaski, in February, 1862; they belonged to the simple contact class, and occasioned no damage. In October, 1862, the service was formally legalized by the confederate congress, and a torpedo bureau was soon established at Richmond. A special corps of officers and men was raised and trained for submarine warfare; inventions multiplied, and agents were sent to Europe to provide material and get the latest ideas. The southern waters soon became so dangerous as to interfere seriously with naval operations. The first vessel actually blown up by the new machines was an ironclad, the Cairo, which was totally destroyed on Yazoo river in December, 1862. During the remainder of the war seven United States ironclads, eleven wooden war vessels, and six army transports were destroyed by torpedoes, and many others were temporarily disabled. The confederates lost a fine ironclad, the Albemarle (see PLYMOUTH, N. C.), two steamers in Charleston harbor, and a flagof-truce boat on James river, in the same manner, the last three accidentally by their own torpedoes. This great destruction chiefly occurred in the last two years of the war. In the Schleswig-Holstein war of 1864, Denmark resorted to ingenious stationary submarine mines, and one of the invading vessels was destroyed. Paraguay employed torpedoes in defending its river coast against Brazil and her allies in 1865-'8. By these the ironclad Rio de Janeiro was destroyed and the Tamandare disabled, although the engineers were crippled by the want of supplies. During the Franco-German war of 1870-'71 the coasts of the Baltic and North seas were effectively protected against the French fleet by torpedoes; and various attempts were made to defend the French rivers in a similar manner.-The recent