is a more or less distinct longitudinal furrow | on the median line, from which extend outward and forward numerous other lines whose angle of union points backward; the posterior third is smooth and without compound papillæ, exhibiting a few simple ones and the nodular eminences of the numerous muciparous glands; in front of this is a V-shaped ridge, the angle directed backward, formed by two converging lines of button-like eminences, the circumvallate papillæ; in front of these, and occupying the anterior two thirds of the organ, are the fungiform and conical or villiform papillæ, the former spheroidal and scattered, the latter very numerous. The osseous support of the tongue is the U-shaped or hyoid bone, consisting of a base or median body, two greater and two lesser cornua, and placed in the neck between the lower jaw and the thyroid cartilage; it is the homologue of a very complex apparatus in the lower vertebrates. The muscles constitute the chief bulk of the tongue; they are arranged in a complicated manner, so as to support each other, rendering the movements of the organ exceedingly varied and extensive; they are attached to the submucous fibrous tissue, which is firm and thick on the superior surface. The mucous membrane is invested with a delicate scaly epithelium, the superficial layer of which readily and constantly falls off. The papillæ are much like those of the skin, most being compound organs, in their nervous and vascular supply. The circumvallate papillæ are 6 to 10 in number, and sometimes in. in diameter; the fungiform are to in. in diameter, and vary greatly in number, perhaps accounting for the well known diversity in the acuteness of the sense of taste in different individuals; the filiform are the most numerous, closely set like the pile of velvet, covering the anterior two thirds of the tongue, and the seat of what is called the fur; their epithelium frequently breaks up into hair-like processes, having their imbrications directed backward, which mark a physiological distinction between the circumvallate and fungiform papillæ and the filiform and conical ones. The conical papillæ are generally regarded as tactile, the fungiform and circumvallate as gustatory (acutely tactile), and the filiform as the homologues of the recurved spines of the tongue of the cats, and as principally concerned in regulating the movements of the food in order to bring it within the reach of the muscles of deglutition. The principal arteries of the tongue are the lingual branches of the external carotid; the sensory nerves are the lingual branch of the fifth pair or trifacial and the glossopharyngeal, distributed respectively to the anterior and posterior portions, and the motor nerve is the hypoglossal; for their functions see TASTE. The tongue in fishes is rudimentary, and not endowed with any great sensibility or motor power; in reptiles it varies greatly in length, size, and movability, being in some immovable or short and

FIG. 1.-Papilla circumvallata of Man, in transverse and vertical section. A. Proper papilla. B. Wall. a. Epithelium. c. Secondary papillæ. b,b. Nerves of the papilla and of the wall. (Magnified about 10 diameters.) provided at the base with numerous spines directed backward to prevent the return of food; though itself incapable of elongation, it may be remarkably protruded by the action of the muscles attached to the very long and movable hyoid bones. In some mammals, as the giraffe and ant-eater, it is capable of great elongation, and is an important organ of prehension; the recurved spines of the cats have been referred to, and constitute efficient instruments for cleaning flesh from bones and for combing their fur. In man the tongue keeps the food during mastication within the range of the teeth, collects it from all parts of the mouth preparatory to swallowing it, and is also concerned in the commencement of deglutition; and it is a principal organ of articulation. It is liable to inflammation, enlargement, atrophy, ulcerations, tumors, and malignant diseases. The fur in disease depends on a sodden and opaque condition of the epithelium of the filiform and conical papillæ, arising from an alteration of the mucus and

FIG. 2.-A. Fungiform Papilla, showing the secondary papillæ on its surface, and at a its epithelium covering them over. (Magnified 25 diameters.) B. The capillary loops of the simple papillæ of A, injected: a, artery; v. vein. The groove around the base of some of the fungiform papillæ is represented, as well as the capillary loops (c. c) of some neighboring simple papillæ. (Magnified 18 diameters.)

saliva of the mouth, the bright red color of the fungiform papillæ presenting a striking contrast; the amount, color, and arrangement of the fur are symptomatic of various morbid changes in the system, of interest to the physician, though there is great variety within the

limits of health. The papillary surface is healed and repaired with great readiness and perfection.

TONQUA BEAN (also written Tonquin, Tonga, and Tonka), an Asiatic name applied to a South American product, the seeds of dipterix odorata, a tree belonging to the leguminosa or pulse family. The genus dipterix (Gr. Sis, double, and Tтерóν, a wing) comprises about eight species, all large trees of the forests of Brazil, Guiana, and neighboring countries, and belongs to a tribe of the family of which there are no representatives in northern localities; the trees have pinnate leaves and large panicles of flowers, which are succeeded by (what is very unusual in the family) a pod containing only a single seed. The Tonqua bean tree grows 60 to 90 ft. high, with a trunk sometimes 3 ft. in diameter; the indehiscent pods, about 2 in. long, are almond-shaped and very thick; the single seed is over an inch long, shaped somewhat like a large kidney bean; it has a wrinkled skin, which is shiny black. The odor, which is remarkably strong, resembles that of the melilot or sweet clover and the sweet-scented vernal grass (anthoxanthum), and is due to the same principle, coumarine, a concrete crystallizable, volatile, neutral substance, with the composition C18H8O4, very soluble in alcohol and ether, and somewhat Tonqua Bean (Dipterix odo- so in boiling water, rata). Halt of the oneseeded pod. from which it crystallizes on cooling; the beans are often frosted with crystals of this, which show very distinctly on their black surface. Formerly the beans were much used to scent snuff, and they are often called "snuff beans," a few of them being placed in a jar with the snuff, or a single one kept in the snuff box; they were also formerly used in smoking tobacco, but a much cheaper substitute is found in the "wild vanilla" (liatris odoratissima) of Florida. (See VANILLA.) The odor of the bean bears some resemblance to that of the true vanilla, and much of the extract of vanilla sold for flavoring ice cream and articles of cookery is adulterated with it, and in some of the cheaper flavoring extracts it is entirely substituted for that costly material; any one with a nice sense of smell can readily detect the least admixture. The wood of the Tonqua bean tree is remarkably close-grained, hard, and heavy, and, though redder, much resembles lignumvita, and in some parts of South America it is called by that name; it is valued

for fine cabinet work. Another species, D. eboënsis, is the eboe tree, the fruit of which is without odor; its timber is hard and valuable. TONQUIN. See ANAM.

TONQUIN, Gulf of, an arm of the China sea, having the Anamese province of Tonquin on the west, the Chinese province of Quang-tung on the north and east, and the island of Hainan on the southeast; length, nearly 300 m.; average width, 150 m. The Sangkoi or Tonquin river flows into it. It has numerous islands. The typhoons are very violent in the gulf.

TONSILS, or Amygdala, two glandular organs, of an almond shape, with the larger end upward, situated on each side of the fauces, between the anterior and posterior pillars of the soft palate, and easily brought into view by opening the mouth. They are composed of a collection of mucous follicles, which open through 12 or 15 orifices on the inner side of each tonsil. These follicles are lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane of the pharynx, and have a structure similar to that of Peyer's glands in the small intestine. They secrete mucus which goes to make up the mixed mass of saliva, or to lubricate the fauces during the act of deglutition, the pressure of the food and the constriction of the pharynx forcing the contents from the organs. They are supplied with blood from the facial, inferior pharyngeal, and internal maxillary arteries, and with nerves from the fifth and glossopharyngeal. The veins terminate in the tonsillar plexus on the outer side of the tonsil. These organs vary in size in different individuals, being notably larger in persons of scrofulous constitution. They are liable to acute inflammation, involving great enlargement and suppuration; an affection called tonsillitis or cynanche tonsillaris, and popularly quinsy. TONSTALL. See TUNSTALL.

TONTINE, a kind of life annuity originated by Lorenzo Tonti, a Neapolitan, who published his scheme and introduced it into France about the middle of the 17th century. The subscribers or their representatives were divided into 10 classes, and an annuity was apportioned to each class according to their age, the survivors deriving an increased annuity as their associates died, and the last survivor receiving the entire annuity of the class till the close of his life. The first association of this kind, called the "Royal Tontine," was founded under the administration of Cardinal Mazarin in 1653. The total sum paid in was 1,025,000 francs, in 10 classes of 102,500 francs each. The subscription was 300 francs, and every subscriber received the interest of his investment until the death of some member of the association increased the dividend to the rest, and after the death of the last subscriber it reverted to the state. This project was not successful, nor were two more subsequently proposed by Tonti. In 1689 Louis XIV. authorized another of 1,400,000 francs divided into 14 classes, according to age, from children of 5 years to

adults of 70. In 1726 the last survivor of the 13th and 14th classes was the widow of a poor surgeon who had invested 300 francs in two tontines, and who enjoyed at her death, at the age of 96, an income of 73,500 francs. Tontines were again resorted to by the French government in 1733 and 1734; but in 1763 they were interdicted as a measure of finance. In 1791 a tontine called the caisse Lafarge, on a more extended scale, was established under private management; but by a gross blunder or fraud, the interest promised was impossible, and the subscribers, whose united contributions amounted to 60,000,000 francs, never received even simple interest, and the entire capital was lost in the disasters of the time. In England tontines have been occasionally resorted to as a measure of finance, the last opened being in 1789, and a few private ones have been established. In 1871 the Alexandra park company in London proposed to organize an institution similar to the South Kensington museum by means of a tontine to cease June 30, 1886; but the scheme proved unsuccessful, and was abandoned in 1872. In the United States there have been private annuities of this kind. The New York tontine association was organized in 1790, with 203 shares valued at $250 each. The tontine coffee house was built in Wall street, and about 1850 the property was leased for business purposes. The lease was to expire and the property to revert to the owners of the shares depending upon the last seven surviving lives. This contingency occurred in 1870, but proceedings. for winding up the affairs of the association and the partition of the property are still pending (1876). Buildings have been erected in some other cities on the same plan.

TONTY, Henry de, an Italian explorer, died at Fort Louis, Mobile, in September, 1704. The son of Lorenzo Tonti, inventor of the tontine system of association, he entered the French army as a cadet, served in the navy, and lost a hand. He came to Canada with La Salle in 1678. Near the present site of Peoria on the Illinois river he assisted in building a fort in 1680, which La Salle left in his command. He attempted a white settlement in Arkansas. In 1685 he brought a force of western Indians to join in attacking the Senecas. Twice he went to meet La Salle at the mouth of the Mississippi, but without finding him. He descended a third time to meet Iberville, and remained in the gulf region. His memoir of La Salle's voyage, published in Margry's Relations et mémoires, has been translated into English under the title "Account of M. de la Salle's last Expedition and Discoveries in North America" (12mo, London, 1698; 8vo, New York, 1814; in French's "Historical Collections of Louisiana," vol. i., 1846).

TOOELE, & W. county of Utah, bordering on Nevada, and bounded N. E. by Great Salt lake; area, 8,320 sq. m.; pop. in 1870, 2,177. The greater portion is a barren desert. The

hilly portions contain some valuable arable and grazing land, and mines of gold, silver, copper, and lead. In the W. part are large fertile valleys and several mining districts. The chief productions in 1870 were 23,483 bushels of wheat, 2,505 of Indian corn, 2,840 of oats, 1,630 of barley, 9,848 of potatoes, 8,497 lbs. of wool, and 973 tons of hay. There were 511 horses, 2,041 cattle, 4,929 sheep, and 121 swine; 1 flour mill, and 2 saw mills. Capital, Tooele.

TOOKE, John Horne, an English politician, born in Westminster, June 25, 1736, died at Wimbledon, March 18, 1812. He was the son of John Horne, a poulterer, was educated at Cambridge, became an usher in a school at Blackheath, took orders, and obtained a curacy in Kent. He was ordained priest in 1760, and for three years officiated in the chapelry of New Brentford. He then went to France as travelling tutor to the son of Elwes the miser. In 1765 he wrote a pamphlet in favor of Wilkes and his party; and on a second visit to the continent he formed at Paris an intimate acquaintance with that politician. On his return in 1767 he took an active interest in political matters, especially in securing the election of Wilkes from Middlesex. In 1769 he was one of the founders of the society for supporting the bill of rights; but its financial affairs involved him in a quarrel with Wilkes, and for this he was attacked by Junius, but defended himself with success. In 1771 he received his degree of M. A. from the university of Cambridge. In 1773, designing to study law, he formally resigned his living. He rendered great assistance in resisting an enclosure bill which would have reduced the value of some property of his friend William Tooke of Purley, who in return made him his heir; but, though in 1782 he changed his name to Tooke, he never received more than £8,000 from the property. He bitterly opposed the American war, and. advertised for a subscription for the widows and orphans of the Americans "murdered by the king's troops at Lexington and at Concord." The ministry prosecuted him for libel, and he was tried at Guildhall in July, 1777. He conducted his own defence, but was condemned to one year's imprisonment and a fine of £200. While confined he published his celebrated "Letter to Mr. Dunning," critically explaining the case of The King v. Lawley, which had been used as a precedent against him on his trial. He declared himself "the victim of two prepositions and a conjunction," which particles he calls "the abject instruments of his civil extinction." After his release in 1779, he applied for admission to the bar, but was rejected on the ground of being a clergyman. He published in 1780, in conjunction with Dr. Price, a pamphlet entitled "Facts," severely reflecting upon Lord North and his prosecution of the American war. In 1786 appeared the first part of his "ETEа TEрбevта, or the Diversions of Purley," the object of which

was to prove that all parts of speech could be resolved into nouns and verbs, and that all words were at first applied to sensible objects. The second part appeared in 1805 (new ed. by Richard Taylor, with additions from the copy prepared by the author for republication, and his letter to John Dunning, 2 vols. 8vo, 1829; with additional notes by Richard Taylor, 8vo, 1860). In 1787 he published "A Letter to the Prince of Wales" in regard to his supposed marriage with a Roman Catholic. In 1788 appeared his pamphlet "Two Pair of Portraits," in which he drew a contrast between the two Pitts and the two Foxes. In 1794 he was tried for high treason, with Hardy, Thelwall, and others, mainly on the ground of his participation in the action of the " Constitutional Society," and was acquitted, being eloquently defended by Erskine. In 1801 he was returned to the house of commons by Lord Camelford for the borough of Old Sarum, and he retained his seat till the dissolution in 1802; but the decision of that parliament that no one in priest's orders could be a member disqualified him from sitting again. The latter years of his life were spent at Wimbledon. He was never married, but left several illegitimate children.-See "Memoirs of John Horne Tooke, interspersed with Original Documents," by A. Stephens (2 vols. 8vo, 1813), and "Memoirs of John Horne Tooke, Esq., together with his Valuable Speeches and Writings," &c., by John A. Graham (New York, 1828).

TOOKE. I. William, an English clergyman, born Jan. 18, 1744, died in London, Nov. 17, 1820. In 1771 he became minister of the English church at Cronstadt, and in 1774 chaplain to the factory of the Russian company at St. Petersburg, where he remained till 1792. His most important works are: "Russia, or a Complete Historical Account of all the Nations which compose the Russian Empire" (4 vols. 8vo, 1780-'83; French translation, Paris, 1801); "Life of Catharine II., Empress of Russia," an enlarged translation from the French (3 vols., 1797-1800; new ed., 1810); "A View of the Russian Empire during the Reign of Catharine II. and to the Close of the Eighteenth Century" (3 vols., 1799); and "History of Russia, A. D. 862-1762" (2 vols., 1800-'6). II. Thomas, an English political economist, son of the preceding, born in St. Petersburg in 1774, died in London, Feb. 26, 1858. In 1838 he published "A History of Prices and of the State of the Circulation from 1793 to 1837, preceded by a brief Sketch of the State of the Corn Trade in the last two Centuries (2 vols. 8vo). Four additional volumes bring the work down to 1856.

TOOLE, John Lawrence. See supplement. TOOMBS, Robert, an American politician, born in Washington, Wilkes co., Ga., July 2, 1810. He graduated at Union college, Schenectady, in 1828, studied law at the university of Virginia, and began practice in his native place. In 1836 he served in the Creek war. In 1837 he

was elected to the state legislature, and with the exception of 1841 continued a member till 1845. He was a member of congress from 1845 to 1853, when he was elected a member of the United States senate, and was reelected for the term ending March 4, 1865. He was a prominent member of the extreme southern party, and after the election of President Lincoln was one of the most active in persuading Georgia to secede. The state of Georgia having passed its secession ordinance on Jan. 19, 1861, Mr. Toombs withdrew from the senate on the 23d, and on March 14 he was expelled. He was a member of the confederate congress which met at Montgomery, Ala., was subsequently for a short time secretary of state of the Confederate States, and also served as a brigadier general in the confederate army. TOORKISTAN. See TURKISTAN.

TOPAZ, a precious stone, a silico-fluoride of alumina, consisting, in 100 parts, of alumina 48 to 58, silica 34 to 39, and fluorine 15 to 18.5. Its specific gravity is 34 to 365; its hardness is 8, or between that of quartz and sapphire. It is usually colorless, but is sometimes blue, green, or red. The yellow Brazilian topaz when heated becomes reddish, while the Saxon wine-colored topaz loses its color entirely. Topaz is pyro-electric; it crystallizes in the trimetric or rhombic system, the prism generally having dissimilar extremities. When heated in the blowpipe flame it becomes cov ered with small blisters, while a coarse variety called physalite (Gr. oboew, to blow) swells up when heated. Its principal localities are: the Ural and Altai mountains, Kamtchatka, Villa Rica in Brazil (of a deep yellow color), Altenberg in Saxony, and the Mourne mountains in Ireland; in the United States, at Trumbull and Middletown, Conn., and at Crowder's mountain, N. C. Physalite is found in Norway and Sweden in very large crystals; one weighed 80 lbs. The topaz is not very highly valued as a gem, though fine specimens sometimes bring very good prices. Tavernier speaks of one belonging to the Great Mogul weighing 157 carats, which was valued at 181,000 rupees. The principal supply is from Brazil, which furnishes about 40 lbs. annually. The white and rose-red are the most valuable. The former are called by the Portuguese pingas d'agoa (drops of water), and when cut resemble the diamond in brilliancy. The oriental topaz is the yellow variety of transparent corundum, and belongs to the family of sapphires. (See SAPPHIRE.) A yellow variety of quartz is sometimes called false topaz.

TOPEKA, a city and the capital of Kansas, county seat of Shawnee co., situated on both banks of the Kansas river, here spanned by s fine iron bridge, 45 m. S. W. of Leavenworth and 300 m. W. of St. Louis; pop. in 1860, 759; in 1870, 5,790; in 1875, 7,272. The streets are wide and regularly laid out. The city is remarkably well built. The state house is a magnificent building. A site has been