Wild fowl and fish are abundant, but Lamaism prohibits them as articles of food.-The Thibetans belong to the Mongolian race, and it is believed that all were once nomadic, as those in the north still remain. They are pliant and agile, usually brave, generous, frank, and honest, eminently commercial in their habits, and many of them skilled workers in gold, silver, and precious stones. They are rude agriculturists. The fine wool which their flocks afford, and the hair of the shawl goat, enable them to manufacture superior woollens and shawls of fine texture. Sacking and other articles are also woven in considerable quantities for the Chinese market. Cloths are dyed with great skill, and the manufacture of pottery and of idols is a thriving trade. The traffic with China is carried on along the great road between Lassa and Tasienloo, a town in the western part of the Chinese province of Sechuen. The exports are drugs, blankets and other woollens, furs, musk, salt, and silver, in return for which China sends cotton goods and thread, ponies from Yunnan, porcelain, and tea. The chief trade routes from India lead through Cashmere and Ladakh, Nepaul, and Bootan, over lofty mountain passes. English woollen cloths, flowered calicoes, indigo, rice, and precious stones, including pearls, turquoises, and dark corals (which here sell for their weight in gold), reach the country by these highways; while gold and silver, salt, borax, wool of the shawl goat, coarse blankets, ponies, and yaks' tails are sent southward into India over the same routes. The roads throughout the country are poor. The language which is common to Thibet and Bootan, and hence called indifferently Thibetan or Bhotanta, is classed with the monosyllabic languages, though possessing some polysyllables. Its alphabet is phonetic, reads from left to right, and is evidently borrowed from the Sanskrit; but the language owes most of its derivatives and some of its root words to the Chinese. It is copious and well adapted for the expression of philosophical and religious ideas. There is an extensive literature, mainly composed of translations and commentaries on the Buddhist sacred books. The religion of Thibet is Lamaism. (See LaMAISM.) There are some Mohammedans in western Thibet, chiefly natives of Cashmere, and, according to Huc, several thousand Roman Catholics. Polyandry prevails in many districts.-Politically Thibet is tributary to the emperor of China, and is therefore usually classified as a part of the Chinese empire. But the direct government of the country is vested in the two great lamas or priestly rulers, who hold sway respectively in the two provinces into which Great Thibet is divided for spiritual and administrative purposes. These are the province of U, of which Lassa is the capital, ruled over by the dalai lama, and the province of Tsang, to the southwest, over which presides the equally sacred teshu lama, with his capital at the city of Shigatze, about

140 m. further up the Sanpo valley. The combined names of these two provinces form the native appellation Utsang, applied to Great Thibet. As Lassa is the sacred capital of all Buddhistic countries, it is regarded as the capital of Thibet in preference to Shigatze. There are many other large towns, in most of which the Chinese government has its governors or representatives, who exert great influence if not positive authority over the Thibetan rulers. A considerable Chinese military force has usually been maintained in the country.-As a kingdom Thibet is said to date from A. D. 313. Buddhism was first introduced, according to some authorities, as early as the 4th or 5th century; but its general diffusion there is of later date. After various struggles with China, Thibet finally became tributary to that empire about the middle of the 17th century. The country was visited by Jesuit missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries. Thomas Manning, an English traveller, made his way to Lassa in 1812, and the abbé Huc in 1845-'6. Although western Thibet has been frequently and quite thoroughly explored, Great Thibet and the eastern and northern parts of the country are very imperfectly known. Much valuable geographical information has recently been acquired, however, through the efforts of the trigonometrical survey of British India, by which native Asiatics trained for the purpose have been despatched to explore the regions N. of the Himalaya. In 1865 and 1871 Great Thibet was visited by three of these trans-Himalayan explorers, and many of the results of their observations are incorporated in this article.

THIERRY. I. Jacques Nicolas Augustin, a French historian, born in Blois, May 10, 1795, died in Paris, May 22, 1856. He was educated at the college of Blois and the normal school in Paris, where he began his career in 1814 as a disciple and literary collaborator of Saint-Simon, whom he left in 1817 to elaborate his new historical theories according to the principles of nationalities. He wrote much for the Censeur européen (1817-20), and established his reputation as the most original historian of his day by his Histoire de la conquête de l'Angleterre par les Normands (8 vols., 1825; 10th ed., 2 vols. 8vo, 1858, and 4 vols. 12mo, 1860), English translations of which were published in 1825 and 1847, the latter by Hazlitt. These labors impaired his sight, which he lost altogether in 1826, but he continued them with the assistance of secretaries, of whom Armand Carrel was one of the first. After the accession of Louis Philippe, he spent several years with his brother Amédée at Vesoul. At Luxeuil, where he resided in summer, he married in 1831 Julie de Querangal, daughter of a rear admiral, who became of great assistance to him as an amanuensis, and who published several works of her own. She died in 1844, and after residing for some time with the princess Belgiojoso, he spent the rest of his life with his brother's family. Guigniaut characterized

him, in an essay read in 1862 before the academy of inscriptions, as a martyr, and as the first historical scholar who had vindicated the rights of oppressed nationalities. His works include Lettres sur l'histoire de France (1827; latest revised ed., 1859); Dix ans d'études historiques (1834; 9th revised ed., 1857; English translation, "Historical Essays," 1845); Récits des temps mérovingiens (1840; 8th ed., 1864; English translation, 1846); Recueil de monuments de l'histoire du tiers état, prepared under the direction of the government and with the assistance of several writers (vols. i. to iii., 1850-'56); and Essai sur l'histoire de la formation et des progrès du tiers état (1853; English translation by Francis B. Wells, 2 vols. 12mo, London, 1855). He prepared a complete edition of his works (8 vols. 18mo, 1846-'7; new ed., 10 vols., 1856-'60). II. Amédée Simon Dominique, a French historian, brother of the preceding, born in Blois, Aug. 2, 1797, died in Paris, March 26, 1873. He was educated at the college of Blois, and in 1820 received an office in the ministry of marine. In 1828 he was for a short time professor of history at Besançon. At Guizot's recommendation he was appointed in 1830 prefect of the department of Haute-Saône. At the end of 1838 he entered the council of state, of which he was also a member during the second empire, and in 1860 was made a senator. He was less brilliant but more judicious than his brother. His works include Histoire des Gaulois jusqu'à la domination romaine (3 vols., 1828; 6th ed., 1866); Histoire de la Gaule sous l'administration romaine (3 vols., 1840-'47); Histoire d'Attila et de ses successeurs (2 vols., 1856; 3d ed., 1864); Récits et nouveaux récits de l'histoire romaine (1860-'64); Tableau de l'empire romain (1862); Saint Jérôme: la société chrétienne à Rome et l'émigration romaine en Terre Sainte (2 vols., 1867); and Saint Jean Chrysostome et l'impératrice Eudoxie: la société chrétienne en Orient (1872).-His son, GILBERT AUGUSTIN, published in 1875 a historical drama entitled Aventures d'une âme en peine.

THIERS, a town of Auvergne, France, in the department of Puy-de-Dôme, on the Durolle, 23 m. E. N. E. of Clermont; pop. in 1872, 16,635. It has two interesting churches, and is chiefly noted for extensive manufactories of cutlery. Paper, playing cards, candles, ribbons, and thread are also manufactured.

THIERS, Louis Adolphe, a French statesman, born in Marseilles, April 16, 1797, died in Paris, Sept. 3, 1877. He was educated at Marseilles and studied law at Aix, where he practised from 1818 to 1821. He then followed Mignet to Paris, where he wrote for the Constitutionnel and other journals. He became a favorite of Laffitte and Talleyrand, and wrote Histoire de la révolution française (10 vols., 1823-7; English translation with notes by F. Shoberl, 5 vols., London, 1838). In January, 1830, he, Mignet, and Carrel started the National, which promoted the change of dynas

ty effected by the revolution of the following July. Under Louis Philippe he became an official in the treasury and a member of the chamber of deputies. The ministry of finance was tendered to him, but he recommended Laffitte as its chief, though he virtually acted in that capacity, and retired with him, March 13, 1831. On joining Soult's cabinet, Oct. 11, 1832, as minister of the interior, he procured with Deutz the arrest (Nov. 6) of the duchess de Berry (see BERRY), and immediately left the department. This act he had deemed necessary for the pacification of the Vendée at the time when all the military resources were needed for the relief of Antwerp in the interest of Belgian independence. Resuming office in December as minister of commerce and agriculture, he obtained large appropriations for public works. Early in 1834 he returned to the interior department, and quelled the bloody insurrections at Lyons and Paris. After ministerial combinations which revealed his dis agreement with Soult and Molé and his rivalry with Guizot, he finally retained his office under the duke de Broglie, and at the same time (December) took his seat in the French academy. The attempt of Fieschi upon the king's life (July 28, 1835), from which he himself barely escaped, made him support the restrictive press and jury laws, known as the laws of September. He resigned with the other ministers in January, 1836, on the rejection of the bill for the conversion of the rentes, but in February became premier and minister of foreign affairs. On Aug. 25 he retired, chiefly on account of the king's opposition to armed intervention in Spain. His successor Molé in vain tempted him in 1838 with the Russian mission, to get rid of his influence. He was reinstated as premier March 1, 1840, and proposed the fortification of Paris and extraordinary armaments to prepare for war, in view of the complications arising from Mehemet Ali's conflict with the sultan; but being again baffled by the king's "peace at any price" policy, he resigned, and was succeeded by Guizot, Oct. 29. He now began his Histoire du consulat et de l'empire (20 vols., 1845-'62; English translation by D. F. Campbell, London, 1845-'62), for which he visited England and examined the battle fields in Germany, Italy, and Spain. At the same time, as the recognized leader of the opposition, he advocated enlightened measures of education and progress, and opposed ultramontane schemes and political corruption. He also denounced the right of search, and the excessive complacency toward England in the Pritchard question (see DU PETIT-THOUARS), and in adopting her objections against the incorporation of Texas with the United States, on which occasion he deprecated alienation from the "great American nation, the harbinger of French liberty." Shortly before the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 he made withering attacks upon Louis Philippe's pusillanimity in foreign affairs, and favored politi

cal reforms, but not a republic. Yet when this became an accomplished fact (Feb. 24), he accepted it as a protection against monarchical factions, and in June was elected to the constituent assembly. When Cavaignac asked for extraordinary powers against the socialists, he was the first to concede them; but subsequently he supported Louis Napoleon for the presidency, and fought a duel with Bixio for repeating a rumor, which he denied, that he had previously disparaged such an election. Elected to the legislative assembly, he was one of the most active leaders of the reactionary majority. In January, 1851, however, after the removal of Changarnier, he raised his warning voice against a new Napoleonic empire. In November he adjured the assembly to adopt Baze's resolution for its military protection, and in vain admonished the radicals that the rejection of this measure threatened the safety of the most truly representative body which France ever had. He was arrested on the coup d'état of Dec. 2, imprisoned till Jan. 9, and banished till Aug. 7, 1852. He kept aloof from politics until the apparent relaxation of the autocratic régime encouraged him in 1863 to solicit the suffrages of Paris liberals, who returned him (May 31), despite governmental opposition. In 1865 he referred in his great speech on the budget to the extravagant expenditures for the Italian war, the Mexican expedition, and Haussmann's stupendous enterprises. In 1866 and 1867 he exposed the fatal blunders of the emperor in permitting the aggrandizement of Prussia and the unification of Italy, to the detriment of the grandeur of France. In 1870 he opposed the declaration of war against Prussia, maintaining that the government, being unprepared, was rushing to a certain defeat; and his influence rose with the verification of his predictions. He urged the vigorous defence of Paris, and visited the principal foreign courts to secure their influence in favor of an armistice. On his return in October, he had several interviews with Bismarck, but without results excepting that his efforts increased his popularity and the universal confidence in his statesmanship. On Feb. 8, 1871, he was elected to the assembly in 26 departments, and selected that of Seine-Inférieure. On Feb. 17 he was chosen by the assembly as chief of the executive. His great measures were the immediate negotiation of the preliminary treaty of peace, his crushing of the commune, and the wonderfully successful national loan for paying the German indemnity and the redemption of the territory. On Aug. 31 his term of office was prolonged by the assembly for three years, with the title of president of the republic. He was always a protectionist, and on the rejection of the tariff bill he resigned (Jan. 20, 1872); but he was finally induced to remain, and his subsequent intention to withdraw was arrested (Nov. 29) by the appointment of a committee for regulating his relations with the as

sembly. In foreign affairs he favored peace and non-intervention. After he had succeeded in substituting Verdun for Belfort as a pledge in German hands, he concluded in March, 1873, a new convention providing for the whole indemnity and for the final withdrawal of the remaining German troops in September, for which he received the thanks of the legislature as one "who deserved well of his country." But on May 24 he was baffled in his attempt to make the republic permanent by legislative enactment, and therefore resigned, and was succeeded by MacMahon. He afterward strongly upheld the republican form of government, which he advocated with great force at Arcachon, Oct. 17, 1875. On Jan. 30, 1876, he was elected to the new senate for Belfort, and on Feb. 20 to the assembly for Paris; and in March he took his seat in the latter body.-His literary fame rests upon his historical works. His other publications include Histoire de Law (1826; new ed., 1858; English translation by F. S. Fiske, New York, 1859); Le monarchie de 1830 (1831); De la propriété (1848); and L'Homme et la matière (1875 et seq.). Near the close of his life he visited Italy to gather additional materials for a long projected history of art, and was also engaged upon his memoirs. As a speaker his vivacity, parliamentary experience, and perfect mastery of the questions discussed made him exceedingly effective. His house in the place St. Georges, destroyed under the commune, was restored by the government, and continued to be the centre of the most influential society.

THIERSCH. I. Friedrich Wilhelm, a German philologist, born at Kirchscheidungen, near Freiburg, June 17, 1784, died in Munich, Feb. 25, 1860. He studied in Leipsic and Göttingen, and in 1809 became professor at the gymnasium in Munich. Being looked upon as a foreigner by the Bavarians, he wrote a vigorous pamphlet entitled Ueber die angenommenen Unterschiede zwischen Süd- und Norddeutschland (1810). Soon after its publication an attempt was made to assassinate him. In 1811 he founded a philological institute, which in the following year was incorporated with the university of Munich, and from 1811 to 1829 he edited the Acta Philologorum Monacensium. He took a special interest in the Hellenic struggle for independence and in the amelioration of education in Greece, and published in 1833, after a two years' sojourn in that country, L'état actuel de la Grèce, et des moyens d'arriver à sa restauration. In his work Ueber die neuesten Angriffe auf die Universitäten (1837) he expressed anew his conviction of the importance of classical studies, and in 1838 initiated a bitter literary warfare against Diesterweg, Linde, Schmitthenner, and others, by his Ueber den gegenwärtigen Zustand des öffentlichen Unterrichts in den westlichen Staaten von Deutschland, in Holland, Frankreich und Belgien. He wrote a Greek grammar, with special reference to the Homeric dialect, which passed

state of prescribing the form of worship within its limits, and to all subjects, Lutheran or Catholic, the privilege of emigrating from the states where their creed was prohibited. The Protestants were to retain the ecclesiastical possessions which they had appropriated previous to the peace of Passau in 1552. But though the basis of a definite settlement was established, two important points remained on which no agreement could be reached. The Catholic party, to guard against the danger that would accrue to the church in the future appropriation of her prelacies by the Protestants, introduced an article, known as the ecclesiastical reservation, by which all prelates who should henceforth abjure Catholicism were to forfeit their benefices. This article was inserted against the protest of the Lutheran members of the diet. The other point related to Protestant subjects in the ecclesiastical states, for whom the Protestant members sought to secure the right of worship in such territories. The Catholics refused to admit such an article, and they could only obtain instead a personal declaration to the same effect from the emperor's brother Ferdinand, who presided at the diet of Augsburg. The exclusion of the Calvinists proved another source of contention. Under the rule of Ferdinand I. (1556-'64) and his son, the mild Maximilian II. (1564-'76), a general tranquillity was maintained, while the balance was fast turning toward the side of the Protestants, who in the Austrian territories began to tyrannize over the Catholics. The bigoted Rudolph II. (1576-1612), swayed by the Jesuits and the court of Spain, resolved to repress Protestantism, and in his immediate dominions proceeded to restrict, and finally even to abolish the Protestant worship. Religious disputes again distracted Germany. The enmity between Lutherans and Calvinists equalled their mutual hate for the Catholics. The aulic council, whose decisions were inspired by the imperial court, usurped an unlawful jurisdiction in the empire. In Aix-la-Chapelle the Protestants established their worship in spite of the Catholics (1580), and at first beat back the troops sent to execute the imperial ban. About the same time an opportunity was presented of enforcing the ecclesiastical reservation. Gebhard, archbishop of Cologne, abjured his faith to marry a Calvinist lady, but determined not to renounce his see. He was accordingly placed under the ban of the empire, and a war ensued, which ended in his defeat and expulsion in 1584. A violent contest followed for the see of Strasburg. In 1607 the Protestant imperial city of Donauwörth, whose inhabitants an abbot had provoked to acts of violence by processions, prohibited within the town, was deprived of its liberties, in open violation of the peace of religion. Alarmed for their safety, the Protestant princes, in May, 1608, formed at Auhausen in Franconia an offensive and defensive league styled the "Evangelical Union." It soon comprised

the Palatinate, Neuburg, Baden, Würtemberg, Brandenburg, Strasburg, Nuremberg, and other states of the empire. Frederick IV., elector palatine, a Calvinist, was placed at its head, though its most active member was Christian of Anhalt. The Lutheran elector of Saxony, however, declined to join the union. On their side the Catholic states, independently of Austria, established the league (July, 1609), with Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, at their head. In the mean while the Protestants of Hungary and Austria had risen against Rudolph and recovered their rights (see RUDOLPH II., and MATTHIAS); and thus encouraged, their brethren in Bohemia, in July, 1609, wrung the Majestätsbrief from the emperor. Amid these disorders the heirless duke of Jülich died (March, 1609), leaving a host of claimants to his dominions, which were at once jointly seized by Brandenburg and Neuburg. Rudolph ordered a levy of troops to enforce their sequestration. The Protestant princes flew to arms, and invoked the aid of France, the Netherlands, and other powers. Henry IV. of France now hoped to execute his design of humbling the house of Hapsburg, and was preparing to invade Germany when the dagger of Ravaillac terminated his career (May 14, 1610). Hostilities ceased, but under the emperor Matthias, who succeeded in 1612, the unsettled claims of Jülich again led to war, and Dutch and Spaniards, called in by Brandenburg and Neuburg respectively, occupied the disputed lands. Matthias, being without heirs, was induced to put forward as his successor his cousin Ferdinand of the Styrian line, whose bigotry and rigor alarmed the Protestants. Ferdinand was nevertheless crowned in Bohemia in 1617 and in Hungary in 1618. But already in Bohemia an event had occurred which precipitated the thirty years' war. The Protestant inhabitants of Klostergraben and Braunau had erected new churches against the prohibition of the archbishop of Prague and the abbot of Braunau, lords of the two places, who enforced their authority by seizing the buildings. Protestants and Catholics appealed to a somewhat obscurely worded clause in the Majestätsbrief, which the former contended gave the right of building new churches to the Protestants of the towns in general, while the latter maintained that it extended only to the states and royal towns. The court supported the Catholics, and refused all redress. The storm now burst. On May 23, 1618, an assemblage of Protestants, led by Count Thurn, entered the palace at Prague, and seizing Slavata and Martinitz, the most odious members of the council of regency appointed by the crown, hurled them together with their secretary from a lofty window. They escaped as if by a miracle. Thurn and his associates organized a general rising, and evoked the assistance of the union and of Bethlen Gábor of Transylvania. In a short time nearly all Bohemia was in their hands. They were joined by the Sile