take to the water if possible, where they easily defend themselves with the teeth; on land they do not go by open paths, but break through the thick undergrowth of the woods by their powerful and wedge-like head, in this way escaping the larger carnivora; they have an acute sense of hearing and of sight, and are strong and tenacious of life; their flesh is eaten both in South America and Asia. The best known species is the American tapir (T. Americanus, Cuv.), about 6 ft. long and 3 ft. high, of a uniform brown color, tinged with gray on the head and chest. It is found over almost the whole extent of South America east of the Andes, and its herds sometimes do great mischief by trampling down cultivated fields; it has only one young at a birth, in November. The Asiatic tapir (T. Malayanus, Horsf.) is 7 or 8 ft. long, with the hind parts of the body white, and the anterior and the legs black; the trunk is 7 or 8 in. long, the eyes very small, and the rounded ears bordered with white; though the largest, it is the gentlest of the genus. Fossil species are found in the tertiary formations of central Europe.

TAPPAN, Henry Philip, an American clergyman, born at Rhinebeck, N. Y., April 23, 1805. He graduated at Union college in 1825, studied at the Auburn theological seminary, was for a year assistant pastor of the Reformed Dutch church in Schenectady, and in 1828 was settled as pastor of a Congregational church at Pittsfield, Mass. In 1832 he was appointed professor of moral and intellectual philosophy in the university of the city of New York. In 1838 the faculty resigned, and for some years he conducted a private seminary. In 1852 he| was elected president of the university of Michigan, which post he held till 1863, since which time he has resided chiefly in Europe. His principal works are: "Review of Edwards's Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will" (12mo, New York, 1839); "The Doctrine of the Will determined by an Appeal to Consciousness" (1840); "The Doctrine of the Will applied to Moral Agency and Responsibility (1841); "Elements of Logic, together with an introductory Review of Philosophy in general, and a preliminary View of the Reason" (12mo, 1844; revised and enlarged ed., 1856); “Treatise on University Education" (1851); and "A Step from the New World to the Old" (2 vols. 12mo, 1852). His three works on the will were republished in Glasgow (1 vol., 1857).

TAR, a thick, black, viscid, impure turpentine, procured by burning the wood of pinus palustris, P. sylvestris, and other species of pine and coniferous trees; also obtained as a product of the destructive distillation of peat, bituminous coals, and shales. It was known to the ancient Greeks, and Dr. Clarke, who describes the method of manufacturing it in the forests of Bothnia, says there is not the smallest difference between the processes there practised and those of ancient Greece. Along the whole coast of the gulf of Bothnia the

inhabitants are very generally engaged in this occupation. They make use of the roots of the fir trees, with logs and billets of the same, which they arrange in a conical stack, fitted to a cavity in the ground, generally in the side of a bank. In the bottom of this cavity is placed a cast-iron pan from which a spout leads out through the bank. The heap is covered over with turf, and is then fired, as in making charcoal. Tar collects in the latter part of the process of charring, and runs off through the spout into barrels. Tar is a product where charcoal is the chief object of the process, but is seldom obtained in quantities sufficient to render it an object to collect it, except in charring the resinous woods of the pine family. In Sweden, where the business is also important, some peculiar methods are adopted to increase the yield of tar. Trees of no value for the saw mill are partially peeled of their bark a fathom or two up from the ground, not enough to kill them, but only to check their growth. After five or six years, when cut down, the wood is found to be much richer in resinous matters which produce tar. It is noticed that the condition of the weather during the process of charring may make a difference of 15 or 20 per cent. in the yield of tar. In the United States tar is produced in almost all parts of the country where pitch pine and the pinus australis are found. Along the coast of the southern states, especially of North Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia, the business is carried on upon a large scale in connection with the manufacture of turpentine, rosin, and pitch. Old trees which have ceased to produce turpentine, and dead wood which is rich in resinous matter, are selected for the coal pits. The process does not materially differ from that already described. The product is not only sufficient for home consumption, but large quantities are annually exported.-In the preparation of pyroligneous acid, tar is one of the products of the destructive distillation, settling in the bottom of the tanks in which the liquids are collected. The variety known as coal tar is obtained when bituminous matters are distilled for the production of illuminating gas. (See GAs, and PETROLEUM.) Both wood and coal tars are complex mixtures of a variety of liquids holding solid matters in solution or suspension; thus, wood tar contains the hydrocarbons included in the term eupion, and the benzole series of hydrocarbons, including toluole, xylole, cymole, also_naphthaline, &c., besides oxidized compounds, including creosote, picamar, kapnomor, &c. Rosin and paraffine are among its solid contents. When its volatile products have been driven off by distillation or boiling, the black carbonaceous residue is known as pitch. The composition of coal tar is materially different, as it contains all the great variety of products derived from the destructive distillation of bituminous coal as obtained from the gas works. Coal tar, a refuse product of these works, may be considered in

lical scholars, but it is now pretty generally agreed that he had nothing whatever to do with the targum attributed to him. Its language is Chaldee, very similar to that of the book of Daniel, and as faithful to the original as its destination as a version for the people would permit. A principal feature is its careful avoidance of all anthropomorphic expressions. Its final redaction probably took place about A. D. 300, and in Babylonia. The targum second in time and importance is that called the "Targum of Jonathan ben Uzziel," or "Targum on the Prophets," embracing Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor prophets. It probably originated in Palestine, and was completed in Babylon about the middle of the 4th century. There is no evidence that Jonathan ben Uzziel ever had anything to do with it, and it was undoubtedly the work of many hands. The third and fourth targums are essentially one work. The former, embracing the whole Pentateuch, is the later, and is called like the second the "Targum of Jonathan ben Uz

TARBES, a town of France, capital of the department of Hautes-Pyrénées, beautifully situated on the left bank of the Adour, 23 m. E. S. E. of Pau; pop. in 1872, 16,565. It is the seat of a bishopric dating from about A. D. 400, and has a modern cathedral built on the site of the castle of Bigorre. It was injured during the middle ages by successive invaders, and was twice burned by the Huguenots in the 16th century.

TARDIGRADES. See SLOTH.
TARE. See VETCH.
TARENTUM. See TARANTO.

TARGUMS (Chal. targem, to translate), the general name given to the Chaldee, or more accurately Aramaic versions and paraphrases of the Hebrew Scriptures. On account of the many vicissitudes of the Jewish people in the course of their history, and more especially on account of their long captivity in the Babylonian empire, the knowledge of the ancient Hebrew language had gradually declined, and Aramaic had become the language of the people. Hence after the time of Ezra, whenever the Scriptures were read in public by the priest, an interpreter (meturgeman) translated them into the Aramaic. This translation it was forbidden to reduce to writing; but the rule was gradually violated, and by the end of the 2d century A. D. the practice of writing translations or "targums" had become fixed. The work of collecting and comparing the versions of individual translators, and reducing them to one, was probably accomplished about the end of the 3d century. The oldest and best of the targums is on the Pentateuch, usually called the "Targum of Onkelos," or "of Onkelos the proselyte." The existence of Onkelos, and his name, have been fruitful themes of discussion among Bib

any connection with it, it is often called the "Targum of Pseudo-Jonathan." The fourth, called "Targum of Jerusalem," a name originally common to both this and the third, embraces portions of each of the books of the Pentateuch. The "Targum of Pseudo-Jonathan" is an emended and completed edition of the "Targum of Jerusalem," the latter being itself a collection of emendations, amplifications, &c., to the Targum of Onkelos. They originated in Syria or Palestine in the latter half of the 7th century. The fifth class of targums are on the Hagiographa, and are usually called "Targums of Joseph the Blind," who had undoubtedly been dead many centuries when they were written. They probably originated in Syria some time between the 9th and 12th centuries. They embrace: 1. Proverbs, Job, and Psalms. The targum of Proverbs is both faithful and complete; those of Job and the Psalms are mere collections of fragments. 2. Targums on the Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Esther, and Ecclesiastes. They appear to be all by one author, but their differences from the originals are so great that they can hardly be called versions. Their dia lect is about equally related to East and West Aramæan. 3. Two targums on Esther. One of these, known as the second targum, is for the most part a collection of tales and legends. The sixth targum is on Chronicles, and appears to have been made in Palestine at a very late period. The seventh targum, according to the enumeration of Deutsch, is on Daniel, has been known only within the last 30 years, and exists so far as known only in a translation of a portion of it into Persian. It is not usually included in the list of targums. The eighth targum is on the apocryphal portions of Esther, and has no particular value. Many fragments of lost targums are scattered in va

rious works of Semitic literature. There is no | edition of any of the targums which deserves to be called critical. Most of them are included in the large polyglot editions of the Bible, and a much improved edition of the "Targum of Onkelos" was published at Wilna in 1852. -For an extended discussion of the targums, condensing almost all the learning of the subject, see E. Deutsch's "Literary Remains" (New York, 1874).

TARIFA, a town of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, Andalusia, on the southernmost point of the kingdom, in lat. 36° 3' N., lon. 5° 35' W., 52 m. S. E. of Cadiz, and 25 m. S. E. of Cape Trafalgar; pop. about 12,000. It is surrounded by old walls and towers, and has a strong fortress. A Moorish castle within the walls is now used as a prison. Tarifa was named from Tarif ibn Malek, a Saracen chief who landed here from Africa in 710, a year before the great Moorish invasion of Spain. During the Moorish domination all vessels passing through the straits of Gibraltar were here compelled to pay duties; whence the word tariff. In 1292 Sancho the Brave of Castile captured it, and Alonso Perez de Guzman held it against the Moors in 1294. About 1340 the Moors besieged it again, but were driven away by the kings of Castile and Portugal. In 1811 it was garrisoned by 1,200 British troops and 600 Spaniards, who held it from Dec. 19 to Jan. 4, 1812, against 13,000 French troops. The French captured the place in 1823.

TARLETON, Bannastre, an English soldier, born in Liverpool, Aug. 21, 1754, died Jan. 23, 1833. He was a lieutenant colonel in Cornwallis's army, and raised in this country a troop called the British legion, which contributed largely to British successes in the south. He massacred Col. Buford's regiment, stationed on Waxhaw creek, May 29, 1780, and "Tarleton's quarter" became a synonyme for cruelty. In 1781, with 1,100 men, he attacked an inferior American force near the Cowpens under Gen. Morgan, and was defeated. He was with Cornwallis during the rest of the war, and was present at the surrender of Yorktown. After his return to England he was promoted to the rank of colonel, and was so popular that in 1790 he was sent to parliament free of expense from his native town. In 1817 he received the commission of major general. He was created a baronet, Nov. 6, 1818. He published a 66 History of the Campaigns of 1780 and 1781 in the Southern Provinces of North America" (4to, London, 1787).

TARN, a S. department of France, in Languedoc, bordering on the departments of Aveyron, Hérault, Aude, Haute-Garonne, and Tarnet-Garonne; area, 2,217 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 852,718. The S. E. part is mountainous, and the rest of the department is traversed by hills. The principal river is the Tarn, a tributary of the Garonne, which receives the Aveyron, Tescou, and Agout; and near Albi there is a

series of falls called Saut-du-Tarn. Coal, iron, lead, copper, gypsum, and porcelain and potters' clay are found. The vine is cultivated, and much brandy is made. Woollen, cotton, and silk goods, iron, leather, and paper are manufactured. It is divided into the arrondissements of Albi, Gaillac, Castres, and Lavaur. Capital, Albi.

TARN-ET-GARONNE, a S. department of France, in Guienne, bordering on the departments of Lot, Aveyron, Tarn, Haute-Garonne, Gers, and Lot-et-Garonne; area, 1,436 sq. m.; pop. in 1872, 221,610. The whole department belongs to the basin of the Garonne, and the surface has a gradual slope to the west. The Garonne, Tarn, and Aveyron are all navigable in this department. Iron, coal, and marble are found. About two thirds of the surface is arable, one tenth is forest, and one tenth is devoted to the vine, the wine being excellent. The mulberry for rearing silkworms is extensively cultivated. Mules and poultry are reared in great numbers and are a principal source of wealth. The minerals include iron and some coal and marble. Woollen, linen, and silk goods, cutlery, iron, and beet sugar are manufactured. The department is divided into the arrondissements of Montauban, Moissac, and Castelsarrasin. Capital, Montauban.

TARPEIA, a Roman maiden, the daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, who, according to the legendary history of the period, was governor of the citadel on the Capitoline hill when the Sabines invested Rome. Tarpeia saw and admired the bracelets of the Sabines, and offered to betray the citadel to them for "what they wore on their left arms." She opened the gate at night, and as they passed in they threw upon her their shields, which were worn on the left arm, and crushed her. She was buried on that part of the hill called the Tarpeian rock.

TARQUIN. I. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus ("the Elder"), fifth king of Rome, assassinated about 578 B. C. According to the common story, his father was a Corinthian nobleman named Demaratus, of the family of the Bacchiadæ, who fled on the overthrow of his order by Cypselus and settled at Tarquinii in Etruria. The son, whose original name was Lucumo, inherited great wealth, married a noble Etruscan woman named Tanaquil, who was skilled in augury, and at her instigation removed to Rome to seek a higher career than any within his reach in Etruria. He gained the confidence of King Ancus Marcius, became guardian to his children, and on the king's death was elected to the vacant throne, about 616. He destroyed the Sabine town of Apiolæ, and subdued a number of Latin towns. His greatest exploit was the defeat of the Sabines, who advanced to the gates of Rome, but were driven back and at length completely overthrown upon the Anio. He built the vast sewers which drained the lower part of the city, and are still perfect; laid out the Circus Maximus, and instituted the Roman games; assigned the shops in